Abstract
Eighteen animal, models of depression are reviewed in relation to three sets of validating criteria. Of the 18 models, five could only be assessed for predictive, validity, seven could be assessed for predictive and face validity, and six could potentially have predictive, face and construct validity. Some traditional models (reserpine reversal, amphetamine potentiation) are rejected as invalid; the models with the highest overall validity are the intracranial self-stimulation, chronic stress and learned helplessness models in rats, and the primate separation model.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
References
Ainsworth MDS (1976) Discussion of papers by Suomi and Bowlby. In: Serban G, Kling A (eds) Animal models in human psychobiology. Plenum Press, New York, pp 37–47
Akiskal HS (1979) A biobehavioural approach to depression. In: Depue RA (ed) The psychobiology of the depressive disorders: Implications for the effects of stress. Academic Press, New York, pp 409–437
Akiskal HS (1980) External validating criteria for psychiatric diagnosis: Their application in affective disorders. J. Clin Psychiatry 41:12. Sec.2:6–15
Akiskal HS, McKinney WT (1973) Depressive disorders: Toward a unified hypothesis. Science 182:20–29
Altenor A, Kay E, Richter M (1977) The generality of learned helplessness in the rat. Learning and Motivation 8:54–61
American Psychiatric Association (1980) DSM III — Diagnostic and statistical manual of psychiatric disorders. A.P.A., Washington
Anderson DC, Cole J, McVaugh W (1968) Variations in unsignalled inescapable preshock as determinants of responses to punishment. J Comp Physiol Psychol 65 [Suppl]: 1–17
Anisman H, Remington G, Sklar LS (1979) Effects of inescapable shock on subsequent escape performance: catecholaminergic and cholinergic mediation of response initiation and maintenance. Psychopharmacology 61:107–124
Anisman HA, Zacharko RM (1982) Depression: The predisposing influence of stress. Behav Brain Sci 5:89–137
Aprison MH, Hintgen JN, Nagayama H (1982) Testing a new theory of depression with an animal model: Neurochemical-behavioural evidence for postsynaptic serotonergic receptor involvement. In: Langer SZ, Takahashi R, Segawa T, Briley M (eds) New vistas in depression. Pergamon Press, New York, pp 171–178
Askew BM (1963) A simple screening procedure for imipramine-like anti-depressant drugs. Life Sci 2:725–730
Babington RG (1975) Antidepressives and the kindling effect. In: Fielding S, Lal H (eds) Antidepressants. Futura, Mount Kisco, New York, pp 113–124
Babington RG (1981) Neurophysiologic techniques and antidepressive activity. In: Enna SJ, Malick JB, Richelson E (eds) Antidepressants: Neurochemical, behavioural and clinical perspectives, Raven Press, New York, pp 157–173
Babington RG, Wedeking, PW (1973) The pharmacology of seizures induced by sensitization with low intensity brain stimulation. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1:461–467
Baltzer V, Weiskrantz L (1973) Antidepressant agents and reversal of diurnal activity cycles in the rat. Biol Psychiatry 10:199–209
Barnett A, Taber RI (1971) Antidepressant agents. In: Turner RA, Hebborn P (eds) Screening methods in pharmacology. Academic Press, New York, pp 209–226
Barnett A, Taber RI, Roth RE (1969) Activity of antihistamines in laboratory antidepressant tests. Int J Pharmacol 8:73–79
Barrett RJ, White DK (1980) Reward system depression following chronic amphetamine: antagonism by haloperidol. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 13:555–559
Beck AT, Harrison RP (1982) Stress, neurochemical substrates and depression: Concommitants are not necessarily causes. Behav Brain Sci 5:101–102
Belmaker RH, Lerer B, Zohar J (1982) Salbutamol treatment of depression. In: Costa E, Racagni G (eds) Typical and atypical antidepressants: Clinical practice. Raven Press, New York, pp 181–193
Betin C, DeFeudis FV, Blavet N, Clostre F (1982) Further characterization of the behavioural despair test in mice: Positive effects of convulsants. Physiol Behav 28:307–311
Binks SM (1979) A reward reduction model of depression using self-stimulating rats: an appraisal. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 10:441–443
Blaney PH (1977) Contemporary theories of depression: critique and comparison. J Abnorm Psychol 86:203–223
Bowden DM, McKinney WT (1972) Behavioural effects of peer separation, isolation and reunion on adolescent male rhesus monkeys. Dev Psychobiol 5:353–362
Bowlby J (1976) Human personality development in an ethological light. In: Serban G, Kling A (eds) Animal models in human psychobiology. Plenum Press, New York, pp 27–36
Briscoe CW, Smith JB (1975) Depression in bereavement and divorce. Arch Gen Psychiatry 32:439–443
Brodie BB, Bickel MH, Sulser F (1961) Desmethylimipramine, a new type of antidepressant drug. Med Exp 5:454–458
Broekkamp CL, Garrigou D, Lloyd KG (1980) Serotonin-mimetic and antidepressant drugs on passive avoidance learning by olfactory bulbectomized rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 13:643–646
Brown GW, Harris T (1978) Social origins of depression. Tavistock Publications, London
Browne RG (1979) Effects of antidepressants and anticholinergics in a mouse “behavioural despair” test. Eur J Pharmacol 58:331–334
Burchfield SR (1979) The stress response: A new perspective. Psychosom Med 41:661–672
Cairncross KD, Wren AF, Cox B, Schnieden H (1977) Effects of olfactory bulbectomy and domicile on stress induced corticosterone release in the rat. Physiol Behav 19:485–487
Cairncross KD, Cox B, Forster C, Wren AF (1978) A new model for the detection of antidepressant drugs: Olfactory bulbectomy in the rat compared with existing models. J Pharmacol Methods 1:131–143
Cairncross KD, Cox B, Forster C, Wren, AF (1979) Olfactory projection systems, drugs and behaviour: A review. Psychoneuroendocrinology 4:253–272
Carlsson A, Lindqist M, Magnusson T (1957) 3,4-Dihydroxyphenylalanine and 5-hydroxytryptophan as reserpine antagonists. Nature 180:1200
Carlton PL (1961) Potentiation of the behavioural effects of amphetamine. Psychopharmacology 2:364–376
Carroll BK (1978) Neuroendocrine function in psychiatric disorders. In: Lipton MA, DiMaschio A, Killam KF (eds) Psychopharmacology: A generation of progress, Raven Press, New York, pp 487–497
Carroll BJ, Curtis GC, Mendels J (1976) Cerebrospinal fluid and plasma free cortisol levels in depression. Psychol Med 6:235–244
Claasen V, Davies JE (1969) Potentiation by tricyclic antidepressants of weight loss caused by amphetamine in rats. Acta Physiol Pharmacol Nederl 15:37–40
Colpaert FC, Lenaerts FM Niemegeers CJE, Janssen PAJ (1975) A critical study on RO-4-1284 antagonism in mice. Arch Int Pharmacodyn Ther 215:40–90
Cornfeldt M, Fisher B, Fielding S (1982) Rat internal capsule lesion: a new test for detecting antidepressants. Fed Proc 41:1066
Costa E, Racagni G (1982) Typical and atypical antidepressants: Clinical practice. Raven Press, New York
Costa E, Garattini S Valzelli L (1960) Interactions between reserpine, chlorpromazine and imipramine. Experientia 16:461–463
Costello CG (1972) Depression: Loss of reinforcers or loss of reinforcer effectiveness? Behav Ther 3:240–247
Cresse I, Snyder SH (1978) Behavioural and biochemical properties of the dopamine receptor. In: Lipton MA, DiMaschio A, Killam KF (eds) Psychopharmacology: A generation of progress. Raven Press, New York, pp 377–388
Day MD, Rand MJ (1963) Awakening from reserpine sedation by alpha-methyl dopa. J Pharm Pharmacol 15:631–632
Delina-Stula A, Vassout A (1979) Differential effects of psychoactive drugs on aggressive responses in rats and mice. In: Sandler M (ed) Psychopharmacology of aggression. Raven Press, New York, pp 41–60
Depue, RA, Monroe SM (1978) Learned helplessness in the perspective of the depressive disorders: Conceptual and definitional issues. J Abnorm Psychol 87:3–20
Depue RA, Monroe SM (1979) The unipolar-bipolar distinction in the depressive disorders: implications for stress-onset interactions. In: Depue RA (ed) The psychobiology of the depressive disorders: Implications for the effects of stress. Academic Press, New York, pp 23–53
Donnelly EF, Murphy DL (1973) Primary affective disorder —MMPI differences between unipolar and bipolar depressed subjects. J Clin Psychol 29:303–306
Dorworthy TR, Overmeier JB (1977) On “learned helplessness”: The therapeutic effects of electroconvulsive shock. Physiol Behav 4:355–358
Dubinsky B, Goldberg ME (1971) The effect, of imipramine and selected drugs on attack elicited by hypothalamic stimulation in the cat. Neuropharmacology 10:537–545
Dubinsky B, Karpowicz K, Goldberg M (1973) Effects of tricyclic antidepressants on attack elicited by hypothalamic stimulation: Relation to brain biogenic amines. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 18:550–552
Duvoisin RC, Marsden CD (1974) Reversal of reserpine-induced bradykinesia by alpha-methyldopa: New light on its modus operandi. Brain Res 71:178–182
Einon DF, Morgan MJ, Sahakian BJ (1975) The development of intersession habituation and emergence in socially reared and isolated rats. Dev Psychobiol 8:553–559
Emrich HM (1982) A possible role of opioid actions in endogenous depression. In: Langer SZ, Takahashi R, Segawa, T, Briley M (eds) New vistas in depression. Pergamon Press, New York, pp 233–237
Engel GL (1962) Anxiety and depression withdrawal: The primary effects of unpleasure. Int J Psychoanal 43:89–97
Everett GM (1967) The DOPA response potentiation test and its use in screening for antidepressant drugs. In: Garattini S, Dukes, MNG (eds) Antidepressant drug. Excerpta Medica, Amsterdam, pp 164–167
Everitt BJ, Keverne EB (1979) Models of depression based on behavioural observations of experimental animals In: Paykel ES, Copen, A (eds) Psychopharmacology of affective disorders. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 41–59
Ferris RM, Maxwell RA, Cooper BR, Soroko FE (1982) Neurochemical and neuropharmacological investigations into the mechanisms of action of bupropion-HCl — a new atypical antidepressant agent. In: Costa E, Racagni G (eds) Typical and atypical antidepressants: Molecular mechanisms. Raven Press, New York, pp 277–286
Ferster CB (1973) A functional analysis of depression. Am Psychol 28:857–870
Fibiger HC, Phillips AG (1981) Increased intracranial self-stimulation in rats after long-term administration of desipramine. Science 214:683–685
Gallistel CR, Beagley G (1971) Specificity of brain stimulation reward in the rat. J Comp Physiol Psychol 76:199–205
Garber J, Miller WR, Seaman SF (1979) Learned helplessness, stress and the depressive disorders. In: Depue RA (ed) The psychobiology of the depressive disorders: Implications for the effects of stress. Academic Press, New York, pp 335–363
Garzon J, Del Rio J (1981) Hyperactivity induced in rats by longterm isolation: further studies on a new animal model for the detection of antidepressants. Eur J Pharmacol 74:287–294
Garzon J, Fuentes JA, Del Rio J (1979) Antidepressants selectively antagonize the hyperactivity induced in rats by long-term isolation. Eur J Pharmacol 59:293–296
Gersh FS, Fowles DC (1979) Neurotic depression: The concept of anxious depression. In: Depue RA (ed) The psychobiology of the depressive disorders: Implications for the effect of stress. Academic Press, New York, pp 81–104
Gillin JC (1983) The sleep therapies of depression. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol 7:351–364
Goddard GV, McIntyre DC, Leech CK (1969) A permanent change in brain function resulting from daily electrical stimulation. Exp Neurol 25:295–330
Goodwin FK, Ebert MH, Bunney WE (1972) Mental effects of reserpine in man: A review. In: Shader RI (ed), Psychiatric complications of medical drugs. Raven Press, New York, pp 73–101
Goodwin FK, Wirz-Justice A, Wehr TA (1982) Evidence, that pathophysiology of depression and the mechanism of action of antidepressant drugs both involve alterations in circadian rhythms. In: Costa E, Racagni G (eds) Typical and atypical antidepressants: Clinical practice. Raven Press, New York, pp 1–11
Gorka Z, Wojtasik E (1980) The effect of antidepressants on behavioural despair in rats. Pol J Pharmacol Pharm 32:463–468
Gorka Z, Wojtasik, E, Kwiatek H, Maj J (1979) Action of serotoninmimetics in the behavioural despair test in rats. Commun Psychopharmacol 3:133–136
Grabowska M, Antkiewicz L, Mechaluk J (1974) The influence of LSD on locomotor activity in reserpinized mice. Pol J Pharmacol Pharm 26:499–504
Halliwell G, Quinton RM, Williams DE (1964) A comparison of imipramine, chlopromazine and related drugs in various tests involving autonomic functions and antagonism, of reserpine. Br J Pharmacol 23:330–350
Hatotani N, Nomura J, Kitayama I (1982) Changes of brain monoamines in the animal model for depression. In: Langer SZ, Takahashi R, Segawa T, Briley M (eds) New vistas in depression. Pergamon Press, New York, pp 65–72
Heath RG (1963) Electrical self-stimulation of the brain in man. Am J Psychiatry 120:571–577
Heath, RG, John SB, Fontana CJ (1968) The pleasure response: Studies by stereotaxic techniques in patients. In: Kline NS, Laska E (eds) Computer and electronic devices in psychiatry. Grune and Stratton, New York, pp 178–189
Higley JD, Suomi SJ, Scanlon JM, McKinney WT (1982) Plasma cortisol as a predictor of individual depressive behaviour in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) Soc Neurosci Abstr 8:461
Hill RT, Tedeschi DH (1971) Animal testing and screening procedures in evaluating psychotropic drugs. In: Rech RH, Moore KE (eds) An introduction to psychopharmacology. Raven Press, New York, pp 237–288
Hinde RA, McGinnis L (1977) Some factors influencing the effects of temporary mother-infant, separation. Some experiments with rhesus monkeys. Psychol Med 7:197–212
Hinde RA, Leighton-Shapiro ME, McGinnis L (1978) Effects of various types of separation experience on rhesus monkeys 5 months later. J Child Psychol Psychiatr 19:199–211
Hoebel BG (1976) Brain-stimulation reward and aversion in relation to behaviour. In: Wauquier A, Rolls E (eds) Brain-stimulation reward. North Holland/American Elsevier. New York, pp 331–372
Hoebel BG Teitelbaum P (1962) Hypothalamic control of feeding and self-stimulation. Science 135:375–377
Horowitz ZP (1965) Selective block or rat mouse killing by antidepressants. Life Sci 4:1909–1912
Horovitz ZP (1967) The amygdala and depression. In: Garattini S, Dukes MNG (eds) Antidepressant drugs. Excerpta Medica, Amsterdam, pp 121–129
Horowitz ZP, Piala JJ, High JP, Burke JC, Leaf RC (1966) Effects of drugs on the mouse killing (muricide) test and its relationship to amygdaloid function. Int J Neuropharmacol 5:405–411
Howard JL, Soroko FE, Cooper BR (1981) Empirical behavioural models of depression, with emphasis on tetrabenazine antagonism. In: Enna SJ, Malick JB, Richelson E (eds) Antidepressants: Neurochemical, behavioural and clinical perspectives. Raven Press, New York, pp 107–120
Hrdina PD, Von Kulmiz P, Stretch R (1979) Pharmacological modification of experimental depression in infant macaques. Psychopharmacology 64:89–93
Hudgens H, Morrison J, Barcha R (1967) Life events and onset of primary affective disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry 16:134–145
Johnson DN, Funderburk WH, Ward JW (1970) Preclinical evaluation of AHR-118: A potential antidepressant drug. Curr Ther Res 12:402–413
Kashani JH, Husain A, Shekim WO, Hodges KK, Cytryn L, McKnew DH (1981) Current perspectives on childhood depression: An overview. Am J Psychiatry 138:143–153
Kastin AJ, Scollan EL, Ehrensing RH, Schally AV, Coy DH (1978) Enkephalin and other peptides reduce passiveness Pharmacol Biochem Behav 9:515–519
Katz RJ (1981a) Animal models and human depressive disorders. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 5:231–246
Katz RJ (1981b) Animal model of depression: Effects of electroconvulsive shock therapy. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 5:273–277
Katz RJ (1982) Animal model of depression: Pharmacological sensitivity of a hedonic deficit. Pharmacol Biochem. Behav 16:965–968
Katz RJ, Baldrighi G (1982) A further parametric study of imipramine in an animal model of depression. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 16:969–972
Katz RJ, Hersh S (1981) Amitriptyline and scopolamine in an animal model of depression. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 5:265–271
Katz RJ, Sibel M (1982a) Animal model of depression: tests of three structurally and pharmacologically novel antidepressant compounds. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 16:973–977
Katz RJ, Sibel M (1982b) Further analysis of the specificity of a novel animal model of depression: Effects of an antihistaminic, antipsychotic and anxiolytic compound. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 16:979–982
Katz RJ, Roth KA, Carroll BJ (1981a) Acute and chronic stress effects on open field activity in the rat: implications for a model of depression. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 5:247–251
Katz RJ, Roth KA, Schmaltz K (1981b) Amphetamine and tranylcypromine in an animal model of depression: pharmacological specificity of the reversal effect. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 5:259–264
Kaufman IC, Rosenblum LA (1967) the reaction to separation in infant monkeys: Anaclitic, depression and conservation-withdrawal. Psychosom. Med 29:648–675
Kaufman IC, Stynes AJ (1978) Depression, can be induced in a bonnet macaque infant. Psychosom Med 40: 71–75
Kitada Y, Miyauchi T, Satoh A, Satoh S (1981) Effects of antidepressants in the rat forced swimming test. Eur J Pharmacol 72:145–152
Klein DF (1974) Endogenomorphic depression: A conceptual and terminological revison. Arch Gen Psychiatry 31:447–454
Klinger E (1975) Consequences of commitment to and disengagement from incentives. Psychol Rev 82:1–24
Klinger E, Barta SG, Kemble ED (1974) Cyclic activity changes during extinction in rats: A potential model of depression. Anim Learn Behav 2:313–316
Knobloch LC, Goldstein JR, Malick JB (1982) Effects of acute and subacute antidepressant treatment on kindled seizures in rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 17:461–465
Kokkindis L, Zacharko RM (1980) Response sensitization and depression following long-term amphetamine treatment in a self-stimulation paradigm. Psychopharmacology 68:73–76
Kokkinidis L, Zacharko RM, Predy PA (1980) Post-amphetamine depression of self-stimulation responding from, the substantia nigra: reversal by tricyclic antidepressants. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 13:379–383
Kraemer GW, McKinney WT (1979) Interactions of pharmacological agents which alter biogenic amine metabolism, and depression. J Affect Dis 1:33–54
Kupfer DJ (1976) REM latency: A psychobiological marker for primary depressive disease. Biol Psychiatry 11:159–174
Kupfer DJ, Detre TP (1978) Tricyclic and monoamine-oxidase inhibitor antidepressants: Clinical use. In: Iversen LL, Iversen SD, Snyder SH (eds) Handbook of psychopharmacology Vol 14. Plenum Press, New York, pp 199–232
Lang W, Gershon S (1962) Effect, of psychoactive drugs on yohimbine-induced responses in conscious dogs. A study of antidepressant drugs. Med Exp (Basel) 7:125–134
Lang W, Gershon S (1963) Effects of psychoactive drugs on yohimbine-induced responses in conscious dogs. A proposed screening procedure for anti-anxiety agents. Arch. Int Pharmacodyn 142:457–472
Lapin IP (1980), Adrenergic nonspecific potentiation of yohimbine toxicity in mice by antidepressants and related drugs and antiyohimbine action of antiadrenergic and serotonergic drugs. Psychopharmacology 70:179–185
Leith NJ, Barrett RJ (1976) Amphetamine and the reward system: evidence for tolerance and post-drug depression. Psychopharmacology 46:19–25
Leith NJ, Barrett RJ (1980) Effects of chronic amphetamine or reserpine on self-stimulation: animal model of depression? Psychopharmacology 72:9–15
Leonard BE (1982) On the mode of action of mianserin. In: Costa E, Racagni G (eds) Typical and atypical antidepressants: Molecular mechanisms. Raven Press, New York, pp 301–319
Leshner AI, Remler H, Biegon A, Samuel D (1979) Effects of desmethylimipramine, (DMI) on learned helplessness. Psychopharmacology 66:207–213
Lewander T (1968) Effects of amphetamine on urinary and tissue catecholamines in rats after inhibition of its metabolism with desmethylimiparamine. Eur J Pharmacol 5:1–9
Lewinsohn PM (1974) A behavioural approach to depression. In: Friedman RJ, Katz MM (eds) The psychology of depression: Contemporary theory and research. Winston/Wiley, New York, pp 157–185
Lewinsohn PM, Zeiss AM, Zeiss RA, Haller R (1977) Endogenicity and reactivity as orthogonal dimensions in depression. J Nerv Ment Dis 164:327–332
Lewinsohn PM, Yougren, MA, Grosscup SJ (1979) Reinforcement and depression. In: Depue RA (ed) The psychobiology of the depressive desorders: Implications for the effects of stress. Academic Press, New York, pp 291–316
Lewis JK, McKinney WT (1976) Effects of electroconvulsive shock on the behaviour of normal and abnormal rhesus monkeys. Behav Psychiatr 37:687–693
Lewis JK, McKinney WT, Young LD, Kraemer GW (1976) Motherinfant separation in rhesus monkeys as a model of human depression: A reconsideration. Arch Gen Psychiatry 33:699–705
Liebman J (1983) Discriminating between reward and performance: A critical review of intracranial self-stimulation methodology. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 7:45–72
Lishman WA (1972) Selective factors, in memory. Psychol Med 2:248–253
Lloyd C (1980a) Life events and depressive disorder reviewed. I. Events as predisposing factors. Arch Gen Psychiatry 37:529–535
Lloyd C (1980b) Life events and depressive disorders reviewed. II. Events as precipitating factors. Arch Gen Psychiatry 37:541–548
Lloyd KG, Garrigou D, Broekkamp CLE (1982) The action of monoaminergic, cholinergic and gabaergic compounds in the olfactory bulbectomized rat model of depression. In: Langer SZ, Takahashi R, Segawa T, Briley M (eds) New vistas in depression. Pergamon Press, New York, pp 179–186
Maier SF, Seligman MEP (1976) Learned helplessness: Theory and evidence. J Exp Psychol (Gen) 1:3–46
Maier SF, Anderson C, Lieberman DA (1972) Influence of control of shock on subsequent shock-elicited aggression. J Comp Physiol Psychol 81:94–100
Malick JB (1981) Yohimbine potentiation as a predictor of antidepressant action. In: Enna SJ, Malick JB, Richelson E (eds) Antidepressants: Neurochemical, behavioural and clinical perspectives. Raven Press, New York, pp 141–155
Martorana PA, Nitz RE (1979) The new antidepressant pirlindone: A comparison with imipramine and tranylcypromine. Arzneim Forsch 29:946–949
Maxwell DR, Palmer HT (1961) Demonstration of anti-depressant or stimulant properties of imipramine in experimental animals. Nature 191:84–85
McKinney WT, Bunney WE (1969) Animal model of depression: Review of evidence and implications for research. Arch Gen Psychiatry 21:240–248
McKinney WT, Young LD, Suomi SJ (1973) Chlorpromazine treatment of disturbed monkeys. Arch Gen Psychiatry 29:490–494
McKnew DH, Cytryn L (1973) Historical background in children with affective disorders. Am J Psychiatry 130:1278–1280
Menzel EW Dvenport RK, rogers CM (1963) Effects of environmental restriction upon the chimpanzee's responsiveness to objects. J Comp Physiol Psychol 56:78–85
Miller W, Rosellini RA, Seligman MEP (1977) Learned helplessness and depression. In: Maser JD, Seligman MEP (eds) Psychopathology: Experimental models. Freeman, San Francisco, pp 104–130
Morgan MJ, Einon DF, Nicholas D (1975) The effects of isolation rearing on behavioural inhibition in the rat. Q J Exp Psychol 27:615–634
Morpurgo C, Theobald W (1965) Effect of imipramine-like compounds and chlorpromazine on reserpine-hypothermia in mice and amphetamine-hyperthermia in rats. Med Pharmacol Exp 2:226–232
Nagayama H, Hintgen, JN, Aprison MH (1980) Pre- and postsynaptic serotonergic manipulations in an animal of depression. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 13:575–579
Nagayama H, Hintgen JN, Aprison MH (1981) Postsynpatic action by four antidepressive drugs in an animal model of depression. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 15:125–130
Nagy A (1977) Blood and brain concentrations of imipramine, clomipramine and their monomethylated metabolites, after oral and intramuscular administration in rats. J Pharm Pharmacol 29:104–107
Nelson JC, Charney DS (1981) The symptoms of major depression. Am J Psychiatry 138:1–13
Nomura A, Shimizu J, Kamateni H, Kinjo M, Watanabe M, Nakazawa T (1982) Swimming mice: In search, of an animal model for human depression. In: Langer SZ, Takahashi R, Segawa T, Briley M (eds) New vistas in depression. Pergamon Press, New York, pp 203–210
Noreika L, Pastor G, Liebman J (1981) Delayed emergence of antidepressant efficacy following withdrawal in olfactory bulbectomized rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 15:393–398
Olds J (1958) Effects of hunger and male sex hormone on selfstimulation of the brain. J Comp Physiol Psychol 51:320–324
O'Neill KA, Valentino D (1982) Escapability and generalization: Effect on behavioural despair. Eur J Pharmacol 78:379–380
Parkes CM (1972) Bereavement: Studies of grief in adult life. International University Press, New York
Paykel ES (1971) Classification of depressed patients: A cluster analysis derived grouping. Br J Psychiatry 118:275–288
Paykel ES (1979) Recent life events in the development of the depressive disorders. In: Depue RA (ed) The psychobiology of the depressive disorders: Implications for the effects of stress. Academic Press, New York, pp 245–262
Paykel ES, Coppen A (1979) Psychopharmacology of depression. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Pearce JB (1981) Drug treatment of depression in children. Acta Paedopsychiatr 46:317–328
Peterfy G, Pinter EJ, Pattee CJ (1976) Psychosomatic aspects of catecholamine depletion: Comparative aspects of metabolic, endocrine and affective changes. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1:243–253
Petty F, Sherman AD (1980) Reversal of learned helplessness by imipramine. Commun Psychopharmacol 3:371–373
Physicians Desk Reference, 36th edition (1982) Medical Economics Co., Oradell New Jersey
Porsolt RD (1981) Behavioural despair. In: Enna SJ, Malick JB, Richelson E (eds) Antidepressants: Neurochemical, behavioural and clinical perspectives Raven Press, New York, pp 121–139
Porsolt RD, Bertin A, Jalfre M (1977a) Behavioural, despair in mice: A primary screening test for antidepressants. Arch Int Pharmacodyn 229:327–336
Porsolt RD, LePichon M, Jalfre M (1977b) Depression: A new animal model sensitive to antidepressant treatment. Nature 266:730–732
Porsolt RD, Anton G, Blavet N, Jalfre M (1978a) Behavioural despair in rats, a new model sensitive to antidepressant treatments. Eur J Pharmacol 47:379–391
Porsolt RD, Bertin A, Jalfre M (1978b) Behavioural despair in rats and mice: Strain differences and the effects of imipramine. Eur J Pharmacol 51:291–294
Porsolt RD, Bertin A, Blavet M, Deniel M, Jalfre M (1979) Immobility induced by forced swimming in rats: Effects of agents which modify central catecholamine and serotonin activity. Eur J Pharmacol 57:201–210
Poznanski EO (1982) The clinical phenomenology of childhood depression. Am J Orthopsychiatry 52:308–313
Quinton RM (1963) The increase in the toxicity of yohimbine induced by imipramine and other drugs in mice. Br J Pharmacol 21:51–66
Reite M, Short R, Seiler C, Pauley JD (1981) Attachment, loss and depression. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 22:141–169
Robertson J, Bowlby J, (1952) Responses, of young children to separation from their mothers. Cour du Centre Internationale de L'Enfance 2:131–142
Rosellini, RA (1978) Inescapable shock interferes with the acquisition of a free appetitive operant. Anim Learn Behav 6:155–159
Rosellini RA, DeCola JP (1981) Inescabable shock interferes with the acquisition of a low-activity response in an appetitive context. Anim Learn Behav 9:487–490
Roth KA, Katz RJ (1981) Further studies on a novel animal model of depression: therapeutic effects of a tricyclic antidepressant. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 5:253–258
Sachar EJ, Hellman L, Roffwarg H, Halpern F, Fukushima D, Gallagher T (1973) Disrupted, 24-hour patterns of cortisol secretion in psychotic depression. Arch Gen Psychatry 28:19–24
Sahakian BJ, Robbins TW, Morgan MJ, Iversen SD (1975) The effects of psychomotor stimulants on stereotypy and locomotor activity in socially deprived and control rats. Brain Res 84:195–205
Sahakian BJ, Robbins TW, Iversen SD (1977) The effects of isolation rearing on exploration in the rat. Anim Learn Behav 5:193–198
Sanghvi I, Gershon S (1969) The evaluation of central nervous system stimulants in a new laboratory test for antidepressants. Life Sci 8:449–457
Sanghvi I, Bindler E, Gershon S (1969) The evaluation of a new animal method for the prediction of clinical antidepressant activity. Life Sci 8:99–106
Sanghvi I, Geyer H Gershon S (1976) Exploration of the antidepressant potential of iprindole. Life Sci 18:569–574
Schechter MD, Chance WT (1979) Non-specificity of “behavioural despair” as an animal model of depression. Eur J Pharmacol 60:139–142
Scheckel CL, Boff E (1964) Behavioural effects of interacting imipramine and other drugs with d-amphetamine, cocaine and tetrabenazine. Psychopharmacology 5:198–208
Schershlicht R, Polc P, Schneeberger J, Steiner M, Haefely W (1982) Selective supression of rapid eye movement sleep (REMS) in cats by typical and atypical antidepressants. In: Costa E, Racagni G (eds) Typical and atypical antidepressants: Molecular mechanisms Raven Press, New York, pp 359–364
Schick JFE, Smith DE, Wesson DR (1973) An analysis of amphetamine toxicity and patterns of use. In: Smith DE, Wesson DR (eds) Uppers and downers. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, pp 23–61
Schmale AH (1973) Adaptive role role of depression in health and disease. In: Scott JP Senay E (eds) Separation and depression. Am Assoc Adv Sci, Washington, pp 187–214
Schulterband JG, Raskin A (1977) Depression in childhood: Diagnosis, treatment and conceptual models. Raven Press, New York
Segal DS, Kuczenski R, Mandell AJ (1974) Theoretical implications of drug-induced adaptive regulation for a biogenic amine hypothesis of affective disorder. Biol Psychiatry 9:147–159
Seligman MEP (1975) Helplessness: On depression, development and death. Freeman, San Francisco
Seligman MEP, Beagley G (1975) Learned helplessness in the rat. J Comp Physiol Psychol 88:534–541
Seligman MEP, Rossellini RA, Kozak M (1975) Learned helplessness in the rat: Reversibility, time course and immunization. J Comp Physiol Psychol 88:542–547
Sem-Jacobsen CW (1976) Electrical stimulation and self-stimulation in man with chronic implanted electrodes. Interpretation and pitfalls of results. In: Wauquier A, Rolls E (eds) Brain-stimulation reward. North Holland/American Elsevier, New York, pp 508–520
Sherman AD, Sacquitne JL, Petty F (1982) Specificity of the learned helplessness model of depression. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 16:449–454
Shopsin B, Cassano GB, Conti L (1981) An overview of new “second generation” antidepressant compounds: Research and treatment implications. In: Enna SJ, Malick JB, Richelson E (eds) Antidepressants: Neurochemical, behavioural and clinical perspectives. Raven Press, New York, pp 219–251
Sigg EB, Hill RT (1967) The effect of imipramine on central adrenergic mechanisms. In: Brill H (ed) Neuro-psycho-pharmacology. Excerpta Medica. Amsterdam, pp 367–372
Sigg EB, Gyermek L, Hill RT (1965) Antagonism to reserpine induced depression by imipramine, releated psychoactive drugs and some autonomic agents. Psychopharmacology 7:144–149
Silvestrini B (1982) Trazodone—A new type of antidepressant: A discussion of pharmacological data and their clinical implications. In: Costa E, Racagni G (eds) Typical and atypical antidepressants: Molecular mechanisms. Raven Press New York pp 327–340
Simpson DM, Annau Z (1977) Behavioural withdrawal following several psychoactive drugs. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 7:59–64
Soblosky JS, Thurmond JB (1982) Tricyclic antidepressants and serotonin manipulations in an animal model of depression utilizing chronic intermittent stress. Soc Neurosci Abstr 8:464
Sofia RD (1969a) Effects of centrally active drugs on experimentally-induced aggression in rodents. Life Sci 8:705–716
Sofia RD (1969b) Structural relationship and potency of agents which selectively block mouse killing (muricide) behaviour in rats. Life Sci 8:1201–1210
Spitz R (1946) Anaclitic depression. Psychoanal Stud Child 2:113–117
Stein L (1962) New methods for evaluating stimulants and antidepressants. In: Nodine JH, Moyer JH (eds), The first Hahnemenn symposium on psychosomatic medicine. Lea and Fibiger, Philadelphia, pp 297–301
Stein L, Seifter J (1961) Possible mode of antidepressive action of imipramine. Science 134:286–287
Stille G, Lauener H, Eichenberger E, Matussek N, Poldinger W (1968) Observations concerning adrenergic functions and antidepressant activity. Pharmakopychiatr Neuropsychopharmakol 1:123–135
Sulser F, Bickel MH, Brodie BB (1964) The action of desmethylimipramine in counteracting sedation and cholinergic effects of reserpine-like drugs. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 144:321–330
Sulser F, Owens ML, Dingell JV (1966) On the mechanism of amphetamine potentiation by desipramine. Life Sci 5:2005–2010
Sulser F, Vetulani J, Mobley PL (1978) Mode of action of antidepressant drugs. Biochem Pharmacol 27:257–261
Suomi SJ (1976) Factors affecting responses to social separation in rhesus monkeys. In: Serban G, Kling A (eds) Animal models in human psychobiology. Plenum Press, New York, pp 9–26
Suomi SJ, Harlow HF, Domek CJ (1970) Effect of repetitive infantinfant separation of young monkeys. J Abnorm Psychol 76:161–172
Suomi SJ, Collins ML, Harlow HF (1976) Effect of maternal and peer separations on young monkeys J Child Psychol Psychiatr 17:101–112
Suomi SJ, Seaman SF, Lewis JK, DeLizio RB, McKinney WT (1978) Effects of impramine treatment on separation-induced social disorders in rhesus monkeys. Arch Gen Psychiatry 34:321–325
Szewczak MR, Fielding S, Cornfeldt M (1982) Rat internal capsule lesion: further characterization of antidepressant screening potential. Soc Neurosci Abstr 8:465
Tennant C, Bebbington P, Hurry J (1981) The role of life events in depressive illness: is there a substantial causal connection? Psychol Med 11:379–389
Theobald W, Buch O, Kunz H, Morpurgo C, Stenger EG, Wilhelmi G (1964) Comparative pharmacological studies with Tofranil, Pertofran and Ensidon. Arch Int Pharmacodyn Ther 148:560–569
Turner C, Davenport R, Rogers C (1969) The effect of early deprivation on the social behaviour of adolescent chimpanzees. Am J Psychiatry 125:1531–1536
Tyrer P (1979) Clinical use of monoamine oxidase inhibitors. In: Paykel ES, Coppen A (eds) Psychopharmacology of affective disorders. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 159–178
Ueki S (1982) Mouse-killing behaviour (muricide) in the rat and the effect of antidepressants. In: Langer SZ, Takahashi R, Segawa T, Briley M (eds) New vistas in depression Pergamon Press, New York, pp 187–194
Valenstein ES (1973) Brain control: A critical examination of brain stimulation and psychosurgery. Wiley, New York
Valzelli L, Bernasconi S (1971) Psychoactive drug effects on behavioural changes induced by prolonged socio-environmental deprivation in rats. Psychol Med 6:271–276
Valzelli L, Consolo S, Morpurgo C (1967) Influence of imipraminelike drugs on the metabolism of amphetamine. In: Garattini S, Dukes MNG (eds) Antidepressant drugs. Excerpta Medica, Amsterdam, pp 61–69
Van Riezen H (1972) Different central effects of the 5-HT antagonists mianserin and cyproheptadine. Arch Int Pharmacodyn Ther 198:256–269
Van Riezen H, Behagel H, Chafik M (1975) Development of psychotropic drugs. Psychopharmacol Bull 11:10–15
Van Riezen H Schnieden H, Wren AF (1977) Olfactory bulb ablation in the rat: Behavioural changes and their reversal by antidepressant drugs. Br J Pharmacol 60:521–528
Vogel JR, Hambrich DR (1973) Chronic administration of electroconvulsive shock: Effects on mouse killing activity and brain monoamines in rats. Physiol. Behav 11:725–728
Wagner HR, Hall TL, Cote IL (1977) The applicability of inescapable shock as a source of animal depression. J Gen Psychol 96:313–318
Wallach MD, Hedley LR (1979) The effects of antihistamines in a modified behavioural despair test. Commun Psychopharmacol 3:35–39
Watanabe S, Inoue M, Ueki S (1979) Effects of psychotropic drugs injected into the limbic structures on mouse-killing behaviour in the rat with olfactory bulb ablation. Jpn J Pharmacol 29:493–496
Watson R, Hartman E, Schildkraut JJ (1972) Amphetamine withdrawal: Affective state, sleep patterns and MHPG excretion. Am J Psychiatry 129:263–269
Wauquier A (1980) The influence of psychoactive drugs on brain self-stimulation in rats: A review. In: Wauquier A, Rolls ET (eds) Brain stimulation reward. North Holland Amsterdam, pp 123–171
Wehr TA, Wirz-Justice A (1982) Circadian rhythm mechanisms in affective illness and in antidepressant drug action. Pharmacopsychiatry 15:31–39
Weingartner H, Silberman E (1982) Models of cognitive impairment: Cognitive changes in depression. Psychopharmacol Bull 18:27–42
Weinstock M, Speiser A, Ashkenazi R (1976) Biochemical and pharmacological studies on an animal model of hyperactivity states. In: Gershon ES, Belmaker RH, Kety SS, Rosenbaum M (eds) The impact of biology on modern psychiatry Plenum. New York, pp 149–161
Weinstock M, Speiser Z, Ashkenazi R (1978) Changes in brain catecholamine turnover and receptor sensitivity induced by social deprivation in rats. Psychopharmacology 56:205–209
Weiss JM (1968) Effects of coping responses on stress. J Comp Physiol Psychol 65:251–260
Weiss JM, Goodman PA, Losito BG, Corrigan S, Charry JM, Bailey WH (1981) Behavioural depression produced by an uncontrollable stressor: relationship to noreprinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin levels in various regions of rat brain. Brain Res Rev 3:167–205
Willner P, Clark D (1978) A reappraisal of the interaction between tricyclic antidepressants and reserpine-like drugs. Psychopharmacology 58:55–62
Zacharko RM, Bowers WJ, Kokkinidis L, Anisman H (1982) Alteration of intracranial self-stimulation in mice following inescapable stress. Soc Neurosci Abstr 8:898
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Willner, P. The validity of animal models of depression. Psychopharmacology 83, 1–16 (1984). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00427414
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00427414