Summary
-
1.
The nesting strategy as determined by nonrandom variation in environmental features at laughing gull (Larus atricilla) nests in a salt marsh was studied (Fig. 3). Gulls tended to nest on mats in tall grass that grows on low ground (just above high tides) near water (Figs. 4–7). Grass height was inversely related to ground elevation and distance to water (Fig. 8). Throughout the season, gulls selected nest sites in grass about 35 cm in height; due to continued grass growth, early breeders had taller grass around nests (Fig. 9). Pairs in the colony center nested earlier and in taller grass than pairs in a peripheral area.
-
2.
Mats apparently stabilize nests during flooding, and by settling on mats gulls may conserve energy in the collection of nest material. Tall grass around nests afforded chicks protection from predators and weather, and held floating nests in place during flooding.
-
3.
Gulls spend about 4 weeks (two spring tidal cycles) on the nesting grounds before egg laying. During this time they perform virtually no nest building and probably gain important information about nest site suitability.
-
4.
Tidal flooding, the greatest threat to reproductive success—destroying 70–100% of the nests in the colony — occurred on average once every 2 years over 10 years. Floods occurred during spring tides accompanied by sustained NE winds.
-
5.
Following a flood that destroyed 70% of the nests in the colony, it was shown that a significantly greater proportion of successful pairs nested on mats and in significantly taller grass than unsuccessful pairs. Grass height, especially that on the SW side of the nest, was the most important predictor of success during flooding.
-
6.
More pairs in the central area were successful than those in the peripheral one: the result of nesting in taller grass and the greater protection of the central area from tides and winds. Though not differing among successful and unsuccessful nesters, females in the peripheral area laid smaller eggs and clutches, and laid later than females in the central area (over 3 years), suggesting that females in the peripheral area were on average younger than females in the central area. It was speculated that, on average, younger pairs will experience during flooding lower reproductive success as a result of nesting inexperience and nesting in suboptimal habitat. The smaller reproductive investments of younger pairs in eggs and clutches can be interpreted as an adaptation to conserve energy during a period of the life cycle when new behavioral adjustments and nesting areas are being explored.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
References
Andersen, F.S.: Egg size and egg composition of bird populations. Vidensk. Medd. Dansk. Naturhist. Foren. (Khobenhavn) 119, 1–24 (1957)
Andrews, H.F.: Nest-related behavior of the clapper rail (Rallus longirostris). Unpulished Ph. D. Thesis. Rugers—The State University of New Jersey at Newark (1977)
Andrews, H.F., Storey, A., Sims, N., Rauch, R., Montevecchi, W.A.: Comparison of nest site selection in four species of marsh nesting birds. Paper Presented at the Northeast. Reg. Mtg. Anim. Behav. Soc., St. John's, Newfoundland (1977)
Austin, O.L.: The role of longevity in successful breeding by the common tern (Sterna hirundo). Bird Banding 16, 21–28 (1945)
Baggerman, B., Baerends, G.P., Heikens, H.S., Mook, J.H.: Observations on the behavior of the black tern (Chlidonias n. nigra) in the breeding area. Ardea 44, 1–71 (1956)
Barash, D.P.: Sociobiology and behavior. New York: Elsevier 1977
Bartholomew, G.A., Dawson, W.R.: Body temperature in nestling western gulls. Condor 54, 58–60 (1952)
Beer, C.G.: Adaptations to nesting habitat in the reproductive behavior of the black-billed gull Larus bulleri. Ibis 108, 394–410 (1966)
Beer, C.G.: Laughing gull chicks: recognition of their parents' voices. Science 166, 1030–1032 (1969)
Bent, A.C.: Life histories of North American gulls and terns Smithson. Inst. US Natl. Mus. Bull. 113 (1921)
Blus, L.J., Keahey, J.A.: Variation in reproductivity with age in the brown pelican. Auk 95, 128–134 (1978)
Bongiorno, S.F.: Nest-site selection by adult laughing gulls (Larus atricilla). Anim. Behav. 18, 434–444 (1970)
Bongiorno, S.F., Swinebroad, J.: Increase in herring gull colony in Cape May, New Jersey. Auk 81, 99–100 (1969)
Brown, J.L.: The evolution of behavior. New York: Norton 1975
Burger, J.: Breeding adaptations of Franklin's gull (Larus pipixcan) to a marsh habitat. Anim. Behav. 22, 521–567 (1974)
Burger, J.: Role of visibility in nesting behavior of Larus gulls. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol. 91, 1347–1358 (1977)
Burger, J., Beer, C.G.: Territoriality in the laughing gull (L. atricilla). Behaviour 55, 301–320 (1975)
Burger, J., Shisler, J.: Nest site selection and competitive interactions of herring and laughing gulls in New Jersey. Auk 95, 252–266 (1978)
Chernesky, S., Andrews, H.F., Montevecchi, W.A.: Clapper rails and laughing gulls: nesting neighbors in the tidal salt marsh. Poster Presented at the XIVth Int. Ethol. Conf., Parma (1975)
Cooke, F., Finney, G.: Population phenomenon of known-aged lesser snow geese (Anser caerulescens). Paper presented at the 91st A.O.U. Ann. Mtg., Provincetown, Massachusetts (1973)
Coulson, J.C.: Egg size and shape in the kittiwake and their use in estimating age composition of populations. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 140, 211–227 (1963)
Coulson, J.C.: The influence of the pair bond and age on the breeding biology of the kittiwake gull Rissa tridactyla. J. Anim. Ecol. 35, 269–279 (1966)
Coulson, J.C.: Differences in the quality of birds nesting in the centre and on the edge of a colony. Nature 217, 478–479 (1968)
Coulson, J.C., Horobin, J.: The influence of age on the breeding biology and survival of Arctic terns Sterna paradisaea. J. Zool. Lond. 178, 247–260 (1976)
Coulson, J.C., Potts, G.R., Horobin, J.L.: Variation in the eggs of the shag (Phalacrocorax aristotelis). Auk 86, 232–245 (1969)
Coulson, J.C., White, E.: A study of colonies of the kittiwake Rissa tridactyla (L.). Ibis 98, 63–79 (1956)
Coulson, J.C., White, E.: The effect of age on the breeding biology of the kittiwake Rissa tridactyla. Ibis 100, 40–51 (1958)
Coulson, J.C., White, E.: The effect of age and density of breeding birds on the time of breeding in the kittiwake Rissa tridactyla. Ibis 102, 71–88 (1960)
Coulson, J.C., White, E.: An analysis of factors influencing the clutch size of the kittiwake. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 139, 207–217 (1961)
Dawson, W.R., Hudson, J.W., Hill, R.W.: Temperature regulation in newly hatched laughing gulls (Larus atricilla). Condor 74, 177–184 (1972)
Dexheimer, M., Southern, W.E.: Breeding success relative to nest location and density in ring-billed gull colonies. Wilson Bull. 86, 288–290 (1974)
Dinsmore, J.J., Schreiber, R.W.: Breeding and annual cycle of laughing gulls in Tampa Bay, Florida. Wilson Bull. 86, 419–427 (1974)
Evans, R.M.: Oldsquaws nesting in association with Arctic terns at Churchill, Manitoba. Wilson Bull. 82, 383–390 (1970)
Evans, R.M.: Semi-precocial development in gulls and terns (Laridae). Proc. Northeast. Reg. Mtg. Anim. Behav. Soc., St. John's Newfoundland (1977)
Ferringo, F.: Some aspects of the nesting biology, dynamics, and habitat associations of the clapper rail. Unpublished Master's Thesis, Rutgers University—The State University of New Jersey at New Brunswick (1960)
Gibo, D.L., Stephens, R., Culpeper, A., Dew, H.: Nest site preferences and nesting success the starling Sturnus vulgaris L. in marginal and favorable habitats in Mississauga, Ontario. Am. Midl. Nat. 95, 493–499 (1976)
Hardy, J.W.: The least tern in the Mississippi Valley. Pub. Mus. Mich. State Univ. Biol. Ser. 1, 1–60 (1957)
Harrington, B.A.: Colony visitation behavior and breeding ages of sooty terns (Sterna fuscata). Bird Banding 45, 115–144 (1974)
Heppleston, P.B.: Nest site selection by oystercatchers (Haematopus ostralegus) in the Netherlands and Scotland. Neth. J. Zool. 21, 208–211 (1971)
Hiscock, S.W., Curtsinger, W.R.: Can we save our salt-marshes? Natl. Geogr. 141, 729–765 (1972)
Hutson, G.D.: Agnostic display and spacing in the black-headed gull Larus ridibundus. Anim. Behav. 25, 765–773 (1977)
Impekoven, M., Gold, P.S.: Prenatal origins of parent-young interactions in birds: a naturalistic approach. In: Behavioral embryology, Vol. 1. Gottlieb, G. (ed.), pp. 325–356 New York: Academic Press 1973
Johnson, R.W.: Observations on the ecology and management of the northern clapper rail Rallus longirostris crepitans Gmelin in Nassau County, New York. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York (1973)
Kirkman, F.F.: Bird behaviour. London: Nelson and Sons 1937
Klomp, G.: The determination of clutch-size in birds, a review. Ardea 58, 1–124 (1970)
Klopfer, P.H., Hailman, J.P.: Habitat selection in birds. In: Advances in the study of behavior, Vol. 1. Lehrman, D.S., Hinde, R.A., Shaw, E. (eds.), pp. 279–303. New York: Academic Press 1965
Koskomies, J.: Terns and gulls as features of habitat recognition for birds nesting in their colonies. Ornis Fenn. 34, 3–5 (1957)
Kozicky, E.L., Schmidt, F.V.: Nesting habits of the clapper rail in New Jersey. Auk 66, 356–364 (1949)
Lack, D.: Ecological adaptations for breeding in birds. London: Methuen 1968
Lehrman, D.S.: Gonadal hromones and parental behaviour in birds and infrahuman mammals. In: Sex and internal secretions. Young, W.C. (ed.), pp. 1268–1362 Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins 1961
Ludwig, J.P.: Recent changes in the ring-billed gull population and biology in the Laurentian Great Lakes. Auk 91, 575–594 (1974)
McNicholl, M.K.: The breeding biology and ecology of Forster's tern (Sterna fosteri) at Delta, Manitoba. Unpublished Master's Thesis, University of Manitoba (1971)
McNicholl, M.K.: Interactions between Forster's terns and American coots. Wilson Bull. 87, 109–110 (1975a)
McNicholl, M.K.: Larid site tenacity and group adherence in relation to habitat. Auk 92, 98–104 (1975b)
Mills, J.A.: The influence of age and pair-bond on the breeding biology of the red-billed gull Larus novaehollandiae scopulinus. J. Anim. Ecol. 42, 147–162 (1973)
Montevecchi, W.A.: Behavioral and ecological influences on the nesting success of laughing gulls (Larus atricilla) in a tidal marsh. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Rutgers—The State University of New Jersey at Newark (1975)
Montevecchi, W.A.: Predation in a salt marsh laughing gull colony. Auk 94, 583–585 (1977)
Montevecchi, W.A., Impekoven, M., Segré-Terkel, A., Beer, C.G.: The seasonal timing and dispersion of egg-laying in laughing gulls. Ibis (in press) (1978)
Nelson, J.B.: The breeding biology of the gannet Sula bassana on the Bass Rock, Scotland, Ibis 108, 584–626 (1967)
Nettleship, D.N.: Breeding success of the common puffin (Fratercula arctica L.) on different habitats at Great Island, Newfoundland. Ecol. Monogr. 42, 239–268 (1972)
Noble, G.K., Wurm, M.: The social behavior of the laughing gull. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 45, 179–220 (1943)
Paludan, K.: Contributions to the breeding biology of Larus argentatus and Larus fuscus. Vidensk. Medd. Dansk. Naturhist. Foren. (Khobenhavn) 114, 1–128 (1951)
Parsons, J.: Seasonal variations in the breeding success of the herring gull: an experimental approach to pre-fledging success. J. Anim. Ecol. 44, 553–573 (1975)
Parsons, J.: Nesting density and breeding success in the herring gull Larus argentatus. Ibis 118, 537–546 (1976)
Patterson, I.J.: Timing and spacing of broods in the black-headed gull Larws ridibundus. Ibis 107, 433–459 (1965)
Pinkowski, B.C.: Nest site selection in eastern bluebirds. Condor (in press) (1978)
Redfield, A.C.: Development of a New England salt marsh. Ecol. Monogr. 38, 199–221 (1972)
Ricklefs, R.E., Hainsworth, F.R.: Temperature regulation in nestling cactus Wrens: the nest environment. Condor 71, 32–37 (1969)
Romanoff, A.L., Romanoff, A.J.: The avian egg. New York: Wiley 1949
Ryder, J.P.: Egg-laying, egg size and success in relation to immature plumage of ring-billed gulls. Wilson Bull. 87, 534–542 (1975)
Segré, A.: The development of brood patches and their role in incubation behavior. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Rutgers University—The State University of New Jersey at New Brunswick (1969)
Stewart, R.E.: Clapper rail populations of the Middle Atlantic States. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 16, 421–430 (1951)
Storey, A.: Adaptations for nesting in salt marsh in common terns (Sterna hirundo) and Forster's terns (Sterna fosteri). Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Rutgers—The State University of New Jersey at Newark (1978)
Teal, J., Teal, M.: The life and death of the salt marsh. New York: Audubon/Ballantine 1969
Tenaza, R.: Behavior and nesting success relative to nest location in Adelie penguins (Pygoscelis adeliae). Condor 73, 81–92 (1971)
Tinbergen, N.: The herring gulls' world. London: Collins 1953
Tinbergen, N.: On aims and methods of ethology. Z. Tierpsychol. 20, 410–433 (1963)
Tinbergen, N.: Adaptive features of the black-headed gull. Proc. Int. Ornithol. Congr. 14, 43–59 (1967)
Tinbergen, N.: Functional ethology and the human sciences. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. [Biol] 182, 385–410 (1973)
U.S. Nautical Almanac Office: The American ephemeris and nautical almanac, 1966–67, 1970, 1972–74. Washington: US Naval Dept. (1964–1965, 1968, 1970–72)
Van Bree, J.P.H.: Variations in length and breadth of eggs from a colony on the islands of Texel. Beaufortia Ser. Misc. Publ. Zool. Mus. Univ. Amsterdam 5, 246–255 (1957)
Veen, J.: Functional and causal aspects of nest distribution in colonies of the sandwich tern (Sterna s. sandvicensis Lath.). Behavior [Suppl.] 20, 1–193 (1977)
Weller, M.W., Spatcher, C.E.: Role of habitat in the distribution and abundance of marsh birds. Agric. Home Eco. Exp. Sta. Iowa State Univ. Rep. No. 43, 1–31 (1965)
Williams, A.J.: Site preferences and interspecific competition among guillemats Uria aalge (L.) and Uria lavia (L.) on Bear Island. Ornis Scand. 5, 113–121 (1974)
Wilson, E.O.: Sociobiology, the new synthesis. Cambridge: Harvard University Press 1975
Ytreberg, N.J.: Contributions to the breeding biology of the black-headed gull in Norway. Nytt. Mag. Zool. 4, 5–106 (1956)
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Montevecchi, W.A. Nest site selection and its survival value among laughing gulls. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 4, 143–161 (1978). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00354977
Received:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00354977