Abstract
The area of salt marshes does no longer increase. The recent erosion coincides with a rise in MHT-level in the last 25 years. Despite the decrease in area, sedimentation continues, especially in the lower salt marsh, which acts as a sink of nitrogen. Assimilation and mineralization of nitrogen are in balance in most plant communities along the gradient from lower to higher salt marshes. Mineralization of nitrogen increases towards the higher salt marsh, whereas the above-ground production and the mean nitrogen content of plants decrease. There is a positive correlation between quality of food plants in salt marshes and breeding success of Brent geese in the arctic tundra. Sedimentation on mainland salt marshes can compensate for the expected sea level rise. This is not the case for island salt marshes, if the relative sea level rise is more than 0.5–1.0 cm yr−1. The natural succession on salt marshes results in an accumulation of organic material, which is related to the dominance of single plant species. It is not clear to which extent this process is enhanced by eutrophication from acid deposition and seawater. Human exploitation of unprotected salt marshes is old and heavy in the system of mound settlements. Reclamation rates by dikes in the last centuries were higher than the rate of area increase. Grazing by cattle as a management practice results in both a higher plant species-richness and community diversity than abandoning; hay-making is intermediate, but shows less structural diversity than grazing with low stocking density. The invertebrate fauna is favoured by a short period of abandoning, but eventually characteristic salt marsh invertebrates are replaced by inland species. Many bird species prefer grazed salt marshes. The final section gives some perspectives. Provided that no further embankments take place the optimal nature management option for plants and animals is a vegetation pattern, which includes areas with a low canopy (grazed) and areas with a tall canopy.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
References
Abd. Aziz, S.A. & D.B. Nedwell, 1979. Microbial nitrogen transformations in the salt marsh environment. In R.L. Jefferies & A.J. Davy (eds), Ecological processes in coastal environments. Blackwell Scientific Publ., Oxford: 385–398.
Abd. Aziz, S.A. & D.B. Nedwell, 1986. The nitrogen cycle of an east coast U.K. salt marsh. II. Nitrogen fixation, Nitrification, denitrification, tidal exchange. Estuar. coast. shelf Sci. 22: 689–704.
Additioneel Programma Verzuringsonderzoek, 1989. Evaluatierapport verzuring nr. 00–06. Rijksinst. Volksgezondheid Milieuhygiëne, Bilthoven.
Alexander, M., 1977. Introduction to soil microbiology. Wiley, New York.
Andresen, H., J.P. Bakker, M. Brongers, B. Heydemann & U. Irmler, 1990. Long-term changes of salt marsh communities by cattle grazing. Vegetatio 89: 137–148.
Armstrong, W., E.J. Wright, S. Lythe, T.J. & Gaynard, 1985. Plant zonation and the effects of the spring-neap tidal cycle on soil aeration in a Humber salt marsh. J. Ecol. 73: 323–339.
Asjes, J., 1988. The effect of fertilizer-application on interacting Puccinellia maritima and Spartina anglica. In M.C.T. Scholten & H. Schat (eds), The competitive ability of Puccinellia maritima. TVC-TNO, Delft: 19–21.
Bakker, J.P., 1989. Nature management by grazing and cutting. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht.
Banus, M.D., I. Valiela & J.M. Teal, 1975. Lead, zinc, and calcium budgets in experimentally enriched salt marsh ecosystems. Estuar. coast. mar. Sci. 3: 421–430.
Beeftink, W.G., 1966. Vegetation and habitat of salt marshes and beach plains in S.W. Netherlands. Wentia 15: 83–108.
Beeftink, W.G., 1977a. The coastal salt marshes of Western and Northern Europe: an ecological and phytosociological approach. In V.J. Chapman (ed.), Wet coastal ecosystems. Elsevier, Amsterdam: 109–155.
Beeftink, W.G., 1977b. Salt marshes. In R.S.K. Barnes (ed.), The coastline. Wiley, New York: 93–121.
Beeftink, W.G., J. Nieuwenhuize, M. Stoeppler & C. Mohl, 1982. Heavy-metal accumulation in salt marshes from the Western and Eastern Scheldt. Sci. Total Environm. 25: 199–223.
Behre, K.E., 1979. Zur Rekonstruktion ehemaliger Pflanzengesellschaften an der Deutschen Nordseeküste. In O. Wilmanns & R. Tüxen (eds), Werden und Vergehen von Pflanzengesellschaften. Cramer, Vaduz: 181–214.
Behre, K.E., 1985. Die ursprungliche Vegetation in den deutschen Marschgebieten und deren Veränderung durch prähistorische Besiedlung und Meeresspiegelbewegungen. Verh. Gesellsch. für Oekologie 13: 85–96.
Bertness, M.D. & A.M. Ellison, 1987. Determinants of pattern in a New England salt marsh plant community. Ecol. Monogr. 57: 129–147.
Boorman, L.A., J.D. Goss-Custard & S. Mc Grorty, 1989. Climatic change, rising sea level and the British coast. HMSO, London. Natural Environm. Res. Council. ITE research publication 1: 1–24.
Bouwsema, P.J.H., Bossinade, K.S. Dijkema, J.W.Th.M. Van Meegen, R. Reenders & W. Vrieling, 1986. De ontwikkeling van de hoogte en van de omvang van de kwelders in de landaanwinningswerken in Friesland en Groningen. Rijkswaterstaat Dir. Groningen, Nota ANA-86.05, RIN-report 86/3: 1–58.
Brouns, J.J.W.M., 1988. The impact of elevated carbon dioxide levels on marine and coastal ecosystems. NIOZ-report 1988–7, RIN-report 88–58, Texel: 1–101.
Dahlman, R.C. & C.L. Kucera, 1965. Root productivity and turnover in native prairie. Ecology 46: 84–89.
Dankers, N., M. Binsbergen, K. Zegers, R. Laane & M. Rutgers Van Der Loeff, 1984. Transportation of water, particulate and dissolved organic and inorganic matter between a salt marsh and the Ems-Dollard estuary, the Netherlands. Estuar. coast. shelf Sci. 19: 143–165.
Dankers, N., K.S. Dijkema, G. Londo & P.A. Slim, 1987. De ecologische effecten van bodemdaling op Ameland. RIN-report 87/14: 1–90.
De Glopper, R.J., 1981. De snelheid van de opslibbing en van de terugschrijdende erosie op de kwelders langs de noordkust van Friesland en Groningen. In 50 jaar onderzoek. Flevobericht 163. Rijksdienst voor de IJsselmeerpolders, Lelystad: 43–51.
De Jong, Z., 1991. Mudflat salt marsh boundary changes after construction of the Eastern Scheldt storm surge barrier. Progress report DIHO 1990, Kon. Ned. Acad. v. Wetensch., in press.
De Jonge, V.N. & H. Postma, 1974. Phosphorus compounds in the Dutch Wadden Sea. Neth. J. Sea Res. 8: 139–153.
De Leeuw, J. & G.J. Buth, 1991. Spatial and temporal variation in peak standing crop of European tidal marshes. In M. Elliott & J.P. Ducrotoy (eds), Estuaries and Coasts: Spatial and temporal intercomparisons. Olsen & Olsen, Fredensborg, in press.
De Leeuw, J., H. Olff & J.P. Bakker, 1990. Year-to-year variation in peak above-ground biomass of six salt marsh angiosperm communities as related to rainfall deficit and inundation frequency. Aquatic Botany 36: 139–151.
De Leeuw, J., A. Van Den Dool, W. De Munck, J. Nieuwenhuize & W.G. Beeftink, 1991. Factors influencing the soil salinity regime along an intertidal gradient. Estuar. coast. shelf Sci. 32: 87–97.
Dieckmann, R., 1988. Entwicklung der Vorländer an der nordfriesischen Festlandküste. Wasser und Boden 3: 146–150.
Drent, R. H. & H.H.T. Prins, 1987. The herbivore as a prisoner of its food supply. In J. Van Andel, J.P. Bakker & R.W. Snaydon (eds), Disturbance in Grasslands. Dr W. Junk Publishers, Dordrecht: 131–147.
Dijkema, K.S., 1983. The salt-marsh vegetation of the mainland coast, estuaries and Halligen. In K.S. Dijkema & W.J. Wolff (eds), Flora and Vegetation of the Wadden Sea islands and coastal areas. Balkema, Rotterdam: 302–312.
Dijkema, K.S., 1987. Changes in salt-marsh area in the Netherlands Wadden Sea after 1600. In A.H.L. Huiskes, C.W.P.M. Blom & J. Rozema (eds), Vegetation between land and sea. Dr W. Junk Publishers, Dordrecht: 42–49.
Dijkema, K.S., J. Van Den Bergs, J.H. Bossinade, P. Bouwsema, R.J. De Glopper & J.W.Th.M. van Meegen, 1988. Effecten van rijzendammen op de opslibbing en de omvang van de vegetatiezones in de Friese en Groninger landaanwinningswerken. Rijkswaterstaat Dir. Groningen, Nota GRAN 1988–2010. RIN-report 88/66, RIJP-report 1988–33 Cbw: 1–119.
Dijkema, K.S., J.H. Bossinade, P. Bouwsema & R.J. De Glopper, 1990. Salt marshes in the Netherlands Wadden Sea: rising high tide levels and accretion enhancement. In J.J. Beukema, W.J. Wolff & J.J.W.H. Brouns (eds), Expected effects of climatic change on marine coastal ecosystems. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht: 173–188.
Ebbinge, B., A. St. Joseph, P. Prokosh & B. Spaans, 1982. The importance of spring staging areas for arctic-breeding geese wintering in Western Europe. Aquila 89: 249–258.
Ehlers, J., 1988. Morphologische Veränderungen auf der Wattseite der Barriere-Inseln des Wattenmeeres. Die Küste 47: 3–30.
Erchinger, H.F., 1985. Dünen, Watt und Saltwiesen. Der Niedersachsiche Minister für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Forsten, Hannover: 1–59.
Erchinger, H.F., 1987. Salzwiesenbildung und -erhaltung — Lahnungsbau und Begrupping für den Küstenschutz. In N. Kempf, J. Lamp & P. Prokosch (eds), Salzwiesen: Geformt von Küstenschutz, Landwirtschaft oder Natur? WWF-Deutschland, Tagungsbericht 1, Husum: 279–296.
Floate, M.J.S., 1970. Mineralization of nitrogen and phosphorus from organic materials and animal origin and its significance in the nutrient cycle in grazed uplands and hill soils. J. Br. Grassl. Soc. 25: 295–302.
Giblin, A.E., I. Valiela & J.M. Teal, 1983. The fate of metals introduced into a New England salt marsh. Water Air Soil Pollut. 20: 81–98.
Gornitz, V. & S. Lebedeff, 1987. Global sea-level changes during the past century. In D. Nummedal, O.H. Pilkey & J.D. Howard (eds), Sea-level fluctuations and coastal evolution. Soc. Econ. Paleontol. and Mineralog. Special Publ. 41, Tulsa, Oklahoma: 3–16.
Groenendijk, A.M., 1984. Primary production of four dominant salt-marsh angiosperms in the SW Netherlands. Vegetatio 57: 143–152.
Groenendijk, A.M., 1987. Ecological consequences of a storm surge barrier in the Oosterschelde salt marshes. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. Utrecht.
Groenendijk, A.M. & M.A. Vink-Lievaart, 1987. Biomass and production on a Dutch salt marsh: emphasis on the below-ground component. Vegetatio 70: 21–27.
Haarnagel, W., 1979. Die Grabung der Feddersen Wierde. Feddersen Wierde 2: 1–364.
Hemminga, M.A. & G.J.C. Buth, 1991. Decomposition in salt marsh ecosystems of the SW Netherlands: the effects of biotic and abiotic factors. Vegetatio 92: 73–83.
Henriksen, K. & A. Jensen, 1979. Nitrogen mineralization in a salt marsh ecosystem dominated by Halimione portulacoides. In R.L. Jefferies & A.J. Davy (eds), Ecological processes in coastal environments. Blackwell Scientific Publ., Oxford: 373–384.
Herman, P.M.J., H. Hummel, M. Bokhorst & A.G.A. Merks, 1991. The Westerschelde: Interaction between eutrophication and chemical pollution? In M. Elliott & J.P. Ducrotoy (eds), Estuaries and Coasts: Spatial and temperoral intercomparisons. Olsen & Olsen, Fredensborg, in press.
Hik, D.S. & R.L. Jefferies, 1990. Increases in the net above-ground primary production of a salt marsh forage grass: a test of the predictions of the herbivore-optimization model. J. Ecol. 78: 180–195.
Huiskes, A.H.L. & J. Rozema, 1988. The impact of anthropogenic activities on the coastal wetlands of the North Sea. In W. Salomons, B.L. Bayne, E.K. Duursma & U. Förstner (eds), Pollution of the North Sea: an assessment. Springer-Verlag, Berlin: 455–473.
Irmler, U. & B. Heydemann, 1985. Der Einfluss der Rinder Beweidung auf die Struktur der Salzwiesen-Biozönose. Verh. Gesellsch. Oekologie 13: 71–76.
Irmler, U. & B. Heydemann, 1986. Die ökologische Problematik der Beweidung von Salzwiesen an der Niedersäsichen Küste — am Beispiel der Leybucht. Naturschutz Landschaftspflege Niedersachsen Beiheft 15.
Jefferies, R.L. & N. Perkins, 1977. The effects on the vegetation of the additions of inorganic nutrients to salt marsh soils at Stiffkey, Norfolk. J. Ecol. 65: 867–882.
Jensen, A., K. Henriksen & M.B. Rasmussen, 1985. The distribution and interconversions of ammonium and nitrate in the Skallingen salt marsh (Denmark) and their exchange with the adjacent coastal water. Vegetatio 62: 357–366.
Jensen, J., H.E. Mügge & G. Visscher, 1988. Untersuchungen zur Wasserstandentwicklung in der Deutschen Bucht. Die Küste 47: 135–161.
Jordan, T. E., D.L. Correll & D.F. Whigham, 1983. Nutrient flux in the Rhode River: tidal exchange of nutrients by brackish marshes. Estuar. coast. shelf Sci. 17: 651–667.
Ketner, P., 1972. Primary production of salt-marsh communities on the island of Terschelling in the Netherlands. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. Utrecht.
Körner-Grohne, U. 1967. Geobotanische Untersuchungen auf der Feddersen Wierde. Feddersen Wierde 1: 1–358.
Leendertse, P.C., 1989. De effekten van verontreiniging (eutrofiëring, microverontreinigingen en olie) van het Waddenzeewater op kweldervegetaties. Report Rijkswaterstaat Dir. Getijdewateren and Dept. Ecology and Ecotoxicology, Free Univ. Amsterdam.
Looijen, R.C. & J.P. Bakker, 1987. Utilization of different salt marsh plant communities by cattle and geese. In A.H.L. Huiskes, C.W.P.M. Blom & J. Rozema (eds), Vegetation between land and sea. Dr W. Junk Publishers, Dordrecht: 52–64.
Luck, G., 1976. Waddengebied van Nedersachsen. In H.J. Abrahamse, W. Joenje & N. Van Leeuwen-Seelt (eds), Waddenzee. Landelijke Ver. tot Behoud van de Waddenzee, Harlingen/Natuurmonumenten, 's-Graveland: 63–75.
Miedema, M., 1983. Vijfentwintig eeuwen bewoning in het terpen gebied van NW van Groningen. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. Amsterdam.
Nienhuis, P.H., 1989. Eutrophication of estuaries and lagoons in the south-west Netherlands. In J.C. Hooghart & C.W.S. Posthumus (eds), Hydro-ecological relations in the Delta-waters of the south-west Netherlands. TNO committee on Hydrological Research, The Hague: 49–70.
Ovesen, C.H., 1990. Salt marsh management in the Wadden Sea Region. Proceedings of the Second Trilateral Working Conference on salt marsh management in the Wadden Sea Region. The Ministry of the Environment/The National Forest and Nature Agency, Hørsholm.
Prins, H.H.T., R.C. Ydenberg & R.H. Drent, 1980. The interacting of Brent Geese (Branta bernicla) and sea plantain (Plantago maritima) during spring staging: field observations and experiments. Acta Bot. Neerl. 29: 585–596.
Rahmann, M., H. Rahmann, N. Kempf, B. Hoffmann & H. Gloger, 1987. Auswirkungen unterschiedlicher landwirtschaftlicher Nutzung auf die Flora und Fauna der Salzwiesen an der ostfriesischen Wattenmeerküste. Senckenb. Marit. 19: 163–193.
Reitsma, D.T. & J.P. Bakker, 1986. Landgebruik op Schiermonnikoog, vroeger en nu. Waddenbulletin 21: 94–100.
Rozema, J., 1978. On the ecology of some halophytes from a beach plain in the Netherlands. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. Amsterdam.
Rozema, J., F. Dorel, R. Janissen, G.H. Lenssen, R.A. Briekman, W. Arp & B.G. Drake, 1990. Effect of elevated atmospheric CO2 on growth, photosynthesis and water relations of salt marsh grass species. Aquat. Bot. 39: 45–55.
Rozema, J. & P.C. Leendertse, 1991. Natural and man-made stresses in coastal wetlands. In J. Rozema & J.A.C. Verkleij (eds), Ecological responses to environmental stresses. Dr W. Junk Publishers, Dordrecht: 220–234.
Scherfose, V., 1987. Pflanzensoziologische und ökologische Untersuchungen in Salzrasen der Nordseeinsel Spiekeroog. II. Bodenchemische Untersuchungen, Stickstoff Netto-Mineralization und Salzbelastung. Tuexenia 7: 173–198.
Schmeisky, H., 1977. Der Einfluss von Weidetieren auf Salzpflanzen-gesellschaften an der Ostsee. In R. Tüxen (ed.), Vegetation und Fauna. Cramer, Vaduz: 481–498.
Schultz, W., 1987. Einfluss der Beweidung von Salzwiesen auf die Vogelfauna. In N. Kempf, J. Lamp & P. Prokosch (eds), Salzwiesen: Geformt von Küstenschutz, Landwirtschaft oder Natur? Tagungsbericht I der Umweltstiftung WWF-Deutschland, Husum: 255–270.
Siira, J., 1970. Study on the ecology of the seashore meadows of the Bothnian Bay with special reference to the Liminka area. Aquilo Ser. Bot. 9: 1–109.
Smalley, A.E., 1959. The growth cycle of Spartina and its relation to the insect populations in the marsh. Proc. Salt Marsh Conf. March 1958, Sapelo Island Georgia.
Snow, A.A. & S.W. Vince, 1984. Plant zonation in an Alaskan salt marsh II. An experimental study of the role of edaphic conditions. J. Ecol. 72: 669–684.
Teal, J.M., 1986. The ecology of a regularly flooded salt marsh of New England: a community profile. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Service, Biol. Rep. 85 (7.4). 61 pp.
Tyler, G., 1976. On the effects of phosphorus and nitrogen, supplied to Baltic shore-meadow vegetation. Bot. Notiser 120:433–447.
Valiela, L., 1984. Marine ecological processes. Springer Verlag, New York, 546 pp.
Valiela, I. & J.M. Teal, 1979. The nitrogen budget of a salt marsh ecosystem. Nature 280: 652–656.
Van der Meijden, R., E.J. Weeda, F.A.C.B. Adema & G.J. De Jonckheere, 1983. Flora van Nederland. Wolters-Noordhoff, Groningen.
Van Eerdt, M.M., 1985. The influence of vegetation on erosion and accretion in salt marshes of the Oosterschelde, the Netherlands. Vegetatio 62: 367–375.
Van Gijn, A.L. & H.T. Waterbolk, 1984. The colonization of the salt marshes of Friesland and Groningen: the possibility of a transhumant prelude. Palaeohistoria 26: 101–122.
Van Malde, J., 1984. Voorlopige uitkomsten van voortgezet onderzoek naar de gemiddelde zeeniveaus in de Nederlandse kustwateren. Rijkswaterstaat, Dir. Waterhuishouding en Waterbeweging. Nota WW-WH 84.08: 1–20.
Van Meerendonk, J.H., G.M. Janssen & B. Frederiks, 1988. De aanvoer van voedingsstoffen en microverontreinigingen naar de Waddenzee en Eems-Dollard. Min. v. Verkeer en Waterstaat, Rijkswaterstaat, GWWS 88–002.
Van Zeist, W., 1974. Palaeobotanical studies of settlement sites in the coastal area of the Netherlands. Palaeohistoria 16: 223–371.
Van Zeist, W., T.C. Van Hoorn, S. Bottema & H. Woldring, 1976. An agricultural experiment on the unprotected salt marsh. Palaeohistoria 18: 11–153.
Waterbolk, H.T., 1976. Oude bewoning in het Waddengebied. In J. Abrahamse, W. Joenje & N. Van Leeuwen-Seelt (eds), Waddenzee. Landelijke Ver. tot Behoud van de Waddenzee, Harlingen: 210–22.
Waterbolk, H.T., 1988. Zomerbewoning in het terpengebied? In M. Bierma, A.T. Clason, E. Kramer & G.J. De Langen (eds), Terpen en wierden in het Fries-Groningse Kustgebied, Wolters-Noordhoff/Forsten, Groningen: 1–19.
Westhoff, V., 1987. Salt marsh communities of three West Frisian islands, with some notes on their long-term succession during half a century. In A.H.L. Huiskes, C.W.P.M. Blom & J. Rozema (eds), vegetation between land and sea. Dr W. Junk Publishers, Dordrecht: 16–40.
Westhoff, V. & A.J. Den Held, 1969. Plantengemeenschappen in Nederland. Thieme, Zutphen.
Whiting, G.J., H.N. McKellar Jr., B. Kjerfve & J.D. Spurrier, 1987. Nitrogen exchange between a southeastern USA salt marsh ecosystem and the coastal ocean. Mar. Biol. 95: 173–182.
Wolaver, T.G., J.C. Zieman, R. Wetzel & K.L. Webb, 1983. Tidal exchange of nitrogen and phosphorus between a mesohaline vegetated marsh and the surrounding estuary in the lower Chesapeake Bay. Estuarine coastal shelf Sci. 16: 321–332.
Wiermann, R., 1965. Moorkundliche und vegetationsgeschichtliche Betrachtungen zum Aussendeichsmoor bei Schestedt (Jadebusen). Ber. Deutsche Bot. Ges. 78: 269–278.
Wolff, W.J., 1988. De internationale betekenis van de Nederlandse natuur. RIN-report 88/32.
Wolff, W.J., M.J. van Eeden & E. Lammens, 1980. Primary production and import of particulate matter on a salt marsh in the Netherlands. Neth. J. Sea Res. 13: 242–255.
Zimmek, G.E., 1975. Die Mineralstickstoff-Versorgung einiger Salzrasen-Gesellschaften des Graswarders vor Heiligenhafen. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. Göttingen.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Bakker, J.P., de Leeuw, J., Dijkema, K.S. et al. Salt marshes along the coast of The Netherlands. Hydrobiologia 265, 73–95 (1993). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00007263
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00007263