Abstract
Considerations of morphology and physiology are important to the health and welfare of captive reptiles, particularly in light of their diversity and possession of characteristics that are fundamentally very different from those of domesticated or laboratory mammals. Although many reptiles seem easily managed in captive circumstances, others will have special requirements and may diminish in health or vigour even while appropriate care appears to be provided. Such health problems are often related to some aspect of physiology that is either inadvertently neglected or, more usually, not well understood. Both physiology and structure-function relationships are important underpinnings of normal species-specific behaviours.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ackerman, R.A. and White, F.N. (1980) The effects of temperature on acid-base balance and ventilation of the marine iguana. Respiration Physiology, 39, 133–47.
Avery, R.A. (1982) Field studies of body temperatures, in Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. 12, Physiology C, Physiological Ecology, (eds C. Gans and F.H. Pough), Academic Press, New York, pp. 93–166.
Axelsson, M., Holm, S. and Nilsson, S. (1989) Flow dynamics of the Crocodilian heart. American Journal of Physiology, 256, R875–9.
Bartholomew, G. A. (1966) A field study of temperature relations in the Galapagos marine iguana. Copeia, 1966, 241–50.
Bartholomew, G. A. (1982) Physiological control of body temperature, in Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. 12, Physiology C, Physiological Ecology, (eds C. Gans and F.H. Pough), Academic Press, New York, pp. 167–211.
Bjorndal, K.A. (1989) Flexibility of digestive responses in two generalist herbivores, the tortoises Geochelone carbonaria and Geochelone denticulata. Oecologia, 78, 317–21.
Bjorndal, K.A. (1991) Diet mixing: non-additive interactions of diet items in an omnivorous freshwater turtle. Ecology, 72, 1234–41.
Bjorndal, K.A. and Bolten, A.B. (1990) Digestive processing in a herbivorous freshwater turtle: consequences of small-intestine fermentation. Physiological Zoology, 63, 1232–47.
Bjorndal, K.A., Bolten, A.B. and Moore, J.E. (1990) Digestive fermentation in herbivores: effect of food particle size. Physiological Zoology, 63, 710–21.
Brattstrom, B.H. (1978) Learning studies in lizards, in Behavior and Neurology of Lizards: An Interdisciplinary Colloquium, (eds N. Greenberg and P.D. MacLean), US Dept of Health, Education, and Welfare Publ. No. ADM 77–491, pp. 173–81.
Burggren, W.W. (1977) Circulation during intermittent lung ventilation in the garter snake Thamnophis. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 55, 1720–5.
Burggren, W.W. (1987) Form and function in reptilian circulations. American Zoologist, 27, 5–19.
Burggren, W.W. and Johansen, K. (1982) Ventricular haemodynamics in the monitor lizard Varanus exanthematicus: pulmonary and systemic pressure separation. Journal of Experimental Biology, 96, 343–54.
Burggren, W.W. and Shelton, G. (1979) Gas exchange and transport during intermittent breathing in chelonian reptiles. Journal of Experimental Biology, 82, 75–92.
Butler, A.B. (1978) Forebrain connections in lizards and the evolution of sensory systems, in Behavior and Neurology of Lizards: An Interdisciplinary Colloquium, (eds N. Greenberg and P.D. MacLean), US Dept of Health, Education, and Welfare Publ. No. ADM 77–491, pp. 65–78.
Coulson, R.A. and Hernandez, T. (1964) Biochemistry of the Alligator: A Study of Metabolism in Slow Motion, Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge.
Coulson, R.A. and Hernandez, T. (1983) Alligator metabolism studies on chemical reactions in vivo. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, 74B, i–182.
Cruce, J.A.F. and Cruce, W.L.R. (1978) Analysis of the visual system in a lizard, Tupinambis nigropunctatus, in Behavior and Neurology of Lizards: An Interdisciplinary Colloquium, (eds N. Greenberg and P.D. MacLean), US Dept of Health, Education, and Welfare Publ. No. ADM 77–491, pp. 79–90.
Dantzler, W.H. and Braun, E.J. (1980) Comparative nephron function in reptiles, birds, and mammals. American Journal of Physiology, 239, R197–213.
Davies, D.G., Thomas, J.L. and Smith, E.N. (1982) Effect of body temperature on ventilatory control in the alligator. Journal of Applied Physiology, 52, 114–8.
De Witt, C.B. (1967) Precision of thermoregulation and its relation to environmental factors in the desert iguana, Dipsosaurus dorsalis. Physiological Zoology, 40, 49–66.
Duncker, H.R. (1978) General morphological principles of amniotic lungs, in Respiratory Function in Birds, Adult and Embryonic, (ed. J. Piper), Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 2–15.
Dunson, W. A. (1976) Salt glands in reptiles, in Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. 5, Physiology A, (eds C. Gans and W. R. Dawson), Academic Press, New York, pp. 413–45.
Dunson, W.A. (1979) Control mechanisms in reptiles, in Mechanisms of Osmoregulation in Animals, (ed. R.Gilles), Wiley Interscience, New York, pp. 273–322.
Dunson, W.A. (1984) The contrasting roles of the salt glands, the integument and behavior in osmoregulation of marine and estuarine reptiles, in Osmoregulation in Estuarine and Marine Animals, (eds A. Pequeux, R. Gilles and L. Bolis), Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 107–29.
Dunson, W.A. and Mazzotti, F.J. (1989) Salinity as a limiting factor in the distribution of reptiles in Florida Bay: a theory for the estuarine origin of marine snakes and turtles. Bulletin of Marine Science, 44, 229–44.
Dunson, W.A. and Robinson, G.D. (1976) Sea snake skin: permeable to water but not to sodium. Journal of Comparative Physiology, 108, 303–311.
Feder, M. and Burggren, W.W. (1985) Cutaneous gas exchange in vertebrates: design, patterns, control and implications. Biological Reviews, 60, 1–45.
Firth, B.T. and Turner, J.S. (1982) Sensory, neural, and hormonal aspects of thermoregulation, in Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. 12, Physiology C, Physiological Ecology, (eds C. Gans and F.H. Pough), Academic Press, New York, pp. 213–74.
Foggin, C.M. (1987) Diseases and disease control on crocodile farms in Zimbabwe, in Wildlife Management of Crocodiles and Alligators, (eds G.J.W. Webb, S.C. Manolis and P.J. Whitehead) Surrey Beatty and Sons, Ltd., Chipping Norton, New South Wales, Australia, pp. 351–62.
Frye, F.L. (1991a) Biomedical and Surgical Aspects of Captive Reptile Husbandry, Krieger Publishing Co. Inc., Malabar, Florida.
Frye, F.L. (1991b) A Practical Guide for Feeding Captive Reptiles, Publishing Co. Inc., Malabar, Florida.
Gatten, R.E., Jr (1974) Effects of temperature and activity on aerobic and anaerobic metabolism and heart rate in the turtles Pseudemys scripta and Terrapene ornata. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, 48A, 619–48.
Gehrmann, W.H. (1987) Ultraviolet irradiances of various lamps used in animal husbandry. Zoo Biology, 6, 117–27.
Gehrmann, W.H., Ferguson, G.W., Odom, T.W. et al. (1991) Early growth and bone mineralization of the iguanid lizard Sceloporus occidentalis in captivity: is vitamin D3 supplementation or ultraviolet B irradiation necessary? Zoo Biology, 10, 409–16.
Gibson, A.R., Smucny, D.A. and Kollar, J. (1989) The effects of feeding and ecdysis on temperature selection by young garter snakes in a simple thermal mosaic. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 67, 19–23.
Grigg, G.C. (1981) Plasma homeostasis and cloacal urine composition in Crocodylus porosus caught along a salinity gradient. Journal of Comparative Physiology, 144, 261–70.
Heisler, N. (1985) Mechanisms of intracardiac shunting in reptiles, in Circulation, Respiration, and Metabolism, (ed. R. Gilles), Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 125– 38.
Hertz, P.E. (1992) Temperature regulation in Puerto Rican Anolis lizards: a field test using null hypotheses. Ecology, 73, 1405–17.
Hicks, J.W. and Wood, S.C. (1985) Temperature regulation in lizards: effects of hypoxia. American Journal of Physiology, 248, R595–600.
Holick, M.F. (1989) Phylogenetic and evolutionary aspects of vitamin D from phytoplankton to humans, in Vertebrate Endocrinology: Fundamentals and Biomedical Implications, Vol. 3, (eds P.K.T. Pang and M.P. Schreibman), Academic Press, Orlando, FL, pp. 7–43.
Howell, B.J. and Rahn, H. (1976) Regulation of acid-base balance in reptiles, in Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. 5, Physiology A, (eds C. Gans and W.R. Dawson), Academic Press, New York, pp. 335–63.
Huey, R.B. (1982) Temperature, physiology, and the ecology of reptiles, in Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. 12, Physiology C, Physiological Ecology, (eds C. Gans and F.H. Pough), Academic Press, New York, pp. 25–91.
Huey, R.B. and Stevenson, R.D. (1979) Integrating thermal physiology and ecology of ectotherms: a discussion of approaches. American Zoologist, 19, 357–66.
Huggins, S.E. (1961) Blood volume parameters of a poikilothermal animal in hypo-and hyperthermia. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine, 108, 231–4.
Huggins, S.E. and Percoco, R.A. (1965) Blood volume in alligators during prolonged hypothermia. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine, 119, 678–82.
Hutchison, V.H. and Dupre, R.K. (1992) Thermoregulation, in Environmental Physiology of the Amphibians, (eds M.E. Feder and W.W. Burggren), University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 206–49.
Hutton, K.E. (1961) Blood volume, corpuscular constants, and shell weight in turtles. American Journal of Physiology, 200, 1004–6.
Iverson, J.B. (1982) Adaptations to herbivory in iguanine lizards, in Iguanas of the World: Their Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation, (eds G.M. Burghardt and A.S. Rand), Noyes Publications, Park Ridge, NJ, pp. 60–76.
Johnson, R.N. and Lillywhite, H.B. (1979) Digestive efficiency of the omnivorous lizard Klauberina riversiana. Copeia, 1979, 431–7.
Jones, J.P. (1978) Photoperiod and reptile reproduction. Herpetological Review, 9, 95–100.
Kerr, J. and Frankel, H.M. (1972) Inadequacy of blood drawn by cardiac puncture as a source for respiratory gas measurements in turtle (Pseudemys scripta). Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, 41A, 913–5.
Kluger, M.J. (1979) Fever in ectotherms: evolutionary implications. American Zoologist, 19, 295–304.
Kluger, M.J., Ringler, D.H. and Anver, M.R. (1975) Fever and survival. Science, 188, 166–8.
Lance, V.A. (1992) Evaluating pain and stress in reptiles, in The Care and Use of Amphibians, Reptiles and Fish in Research (eds D.O. Schaeffer, K.M. Kleinow and L. Krulisch), Scientists Center Animal Welfare, pp. 101–6.
Landmann, L. (1979) Keratin formation and barrier mechanisms in the epidermis of Natrix natrix (Reptilia: Serpentes). An ultrastructural study. Journal of Morphology, 162, 93–126.
Landmann, L., Stolinski, C. and Martin, B. (1981) The permeability barrier in the epidermis of the grass snake during the resting stage of the sloughing cycle. Cell and Tissue Research, 215, 369–82.
Lauren, D.J. (1985) The effect of chronic saline exposure on the electrolyte balance, nitrogen metabolism, and corticosterone titer in the American alligator, Alligator mississippiensis. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, 81A, 217–23.
Liang, Y.F. and Terashima, S.I. (1993) Physiological properties and morphological characteristics of cutaneous and mucosal mechanical nociceptive neurons with A-δ peripheral axons in the trigeminal ganglia of crotaline snakes. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 328, 88–102.
Licht, P. (1965) The relation between preferred body temperatures and testicular heat sensitivity in lizards. Copeia, 1965, 428–36.
Licht, P. (1972) Environmental physiology of reptilian breeding cycles: role of temperature. General and Comparative Endocrinology Supplement, 3, 477–88.
Lillywhite, H.B. (1985) Behavioral control of arterial pressure in snakes. Physiological Zoology, 58, 159–65.
Lillywhite, H.B. (1987a) Temperature, energetics and physiological ecology, in Snakes: Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, (eds R. Seigel, J. Collins and S. Novak), MacMillan, New York, pp. 422–77.
Lillywhite, H.B. (1987b) Circulatory adaptations of snakes to gravity. American Zoologist, 27, 81–95.
Lillywhite, H.B. (1988) Snakes, blood circulation and gravity. Scientific American, 256, 92–8.
Lillywhite, H.B. and Ellis, T.M. (1994) Ecophysiological aspects of the coastal-estuarine distribution of acrochordid snakes. Estuaries, 17, 53–61.
Lillywhite, H.B. and Maderson, P.F.A. (1982) Skin structure and permeability, in Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. 12, Physiology C, Physiological Ecology, (eds C. Gans and F. H. Pough), Academic Press, New York, pp. 397–442.
Lillywhite, H.B. and Maderson, P.F.A. (1988) The structure and permeability of integument. American Zoologist, 28, 945–62.
Lillywhite, H.B. and Smith, L.H. (1981) Haemodynamic responses to haemorrhage in the snake, Elaphe obsoleta obsoleta. Journal of Experimental Biology, 94, 275–83.
Lillywhite, H.B. and Smits, A.W. (1984) Lability of blood volume in snakes and its relation to activity and hypertension. Journal of Experimental Biology, 110, 267–74.
Lillywhite, H.B. and Smits, A.W. (1992) Cardiovascular adaptations of viperid snakes, in Biology of the Pitvipers, (eds J.A. Campbell and E.D. Brodie, Jr), Selva, Tyler, TX, pp. 143–53.
Lutterschmidt, W.I. and Reinert, H.K. (1990) The effect of ingested transmitters upon the temperature preference of the northern water snake, Nerodia s. sipedon. Herpetologica, 46, 39–42.
Lutz, P.L., Bergey, A., and Bergey, M. (1989) Effects of temperature on gas exchange and acid-base balance in the sea turtle Caretta caretta at rest and during routine activity. Journal of Experimental Biology, 144, 155–69.
Mautz, W.J. (1982) Patterns of evaporative water loss, in Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. 12, Physiology C, Physiological Ecology, (eds C. Gans and F.H. Pough), Academic Press, New York, pp. 441–81.
Mazzotti, F.J. and Dunson, W.A. (1989) Osmoregulation in crocodilians. American Zoologist, 29, 903–20.
McBee, R.H. and McBee, V.H. (1982) The hindgut fermentation in the green iguana, Iguana iguana, in Iguanas of the World: Their Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation, (eds G.M. Burghardt and A.S. Rand), Noyes Publications, Park Ridge, NJ, pp. 77–83.
McDonald, H.S. (1976) Methods for the physiological study of reptiles, in Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. 5, Physiology A, (eds C. Gans and W.R. Dawson), Academic Press, New York, pp. 19–126.
Minnich, J.E. (1979) Reptiles, in Comparative Physiology of Osmoregulation in Animals, Vol. 1, (ed. G.M.O. Maloiy), Academic Press, New York, pp. 391– 641.
Minnich, J.E. (1982) The use of water, in Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. 12, Physiology C, Physiological Ecology, (eds C. Gans and F.H. Pough), Academic Press, New York, pp. 325–95.
Moehn, L.D. (1974) The effect of quality of light on agonistic behavior of iguanid and agamid lizards. Journal of Herpetology, 8, 175–83.
Muth, A. (1977) Thermoregulatory postures and orientation to the sun: a mechanistic evaluation for the zebra-tailed lizard, Callisaurus draconoides. Copeia, 1977, 710–20.
Nagy, K.A. (1983) Ecological energetics, in Lizard Ecology: Studies of a Model Organism, (eds R.B. Huey, E.R. Pianka and T.W. Schoener), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, pp. 24–54.
Olson, G.A., Hessler, J.R., and Faith, R.E. (1975) Technics for blood collection and intravascular infusion in reptiles. Laboratory Animal Science, 25, 783–6.
Ottaviani, G. and Tazzi, A. (1977) The lymphatic system, in Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. 6, Morphology E, (eds C. Gans and T.S. Parsons), Academic Press, New York, pp. 315–462.
Parsons, T.S. and Cameron, J.E. (1977) Internal relief of the digestive tract, in Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. 6, Morphology E, (eds C. Gans and T.S. Parsons), Academic Press, New York, pp. 159–223.
Perry, S.F. (1989) Structure and function of the reptilian respiratory system, in Comparative Pulmonary Physiology, (ed. S.C. Wood), Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 193–236.
Peterson, C.R., Gibson, A.R., and Dorcas, M.E. (1993) Snake thermal ecology: the causes and consequences of body-temperature variation, in Snakes: Ecology and Behavior, (eds R.A. Seigel and J.T. Collins), McGraw-Hill, New York, pp. 241–314.
Porter, W.P. (1967) Solar radiation through the living body walls of vertebrates with emphasis on desert reptiles. Ecological Monographs, 37, 273–96.
Pough, F.H. (1969a) The morphology of undersand respiration in reptiles. Herpetologica, 25, 216–23.
Pough, F.H. (1969b) Physiological aspects of the burrowing of sand lizards (Uma, Iguanidae) and other lizards. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, 31, 869–84.
Pough, F.H. (1980) The advantages of ectothermy for tetrapods. American Naturalist, 115, 92–112.
Pough, F.H. (1991) Recommendations for the care of amphibians and reptiles in academic institutions. I.L.A.R. News, 33, S5–21.
Pough, F.H. and Gans, C. (1982) The vocabulary of reptilian thermoregulation, in Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. 12, Physiology C, Physiological Ecology, (eds C. Gans and F.H. Pough), Academic Press, New York, pp. 17–23.
Pough, F.H. and Lillywhite, H.B. (1984) Blood volume and blood oxygen capacity of sea snakes. Physiological Zoology, 57, 32–9.
Regal, P.J. (1980) Temperature and light requirements of captive reptiles, in Reproductive Biology and Diseases of Captive Reptiles, (eds J.B. Murphy and J.T. Collins), Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles, Oxford, OH, pp. 79–91.
Roberts, J.B. and Lillywhite, H.B. (1980) Lipid barrier to water exchange in reptile epidermis. Science, 207, 1077–9.
Roberts, J.B. and Lillywhite, H.B. (1983) Lipids and the permeability of epidermis from snakes. Journal of Experimental Zoology, 228, 1–9.
Seymour, R.S. and Lillywhite, H.B. (1976) Blood pressure in snakes from different habitats. Nature, 264, 664–6.
Seymour, R.S., Bennett, A.F. and Bradford, D.F. (1985) Blood gas tensions and acid-base regulation in the salt-water crocodile, Crocodylus porosus, at rest and after exhaustive exercise. Journal of Experimental Biology, 118, 143–59.
Smits, A.W. (1985) Correlates of activity, diet, and body water flux in the chuckwalla lizard Sauromalus hispidus. Physiological Zoology, 58, 166–74.
Smits, A.W. and Kozubowski, M.M. (1985) Partitioning of body fluids and cardiovascular responses to circulatory hypovolaemia in the turtle, Pseudemys scripta elegans. Journal of Experimental Biology, 116, 237–50.
Snyder, G.K. (1971) Influence of temperature and haematocrit on blood viscosity. American Journal of Physiology, 220, 1667–72.
Stevenson, R.D., Peterson, C.R., and Tsuji, J.S. (1985) The thermal dependence of locomotion, tongue flicking, digestion, and oxygen consumption in the wandering garter snake. Physiological Zoology, 58, 46–57.
Stinner, J.N. (1987) Thermal dependence of air convection requirement and blood gases in the snake Coluber constrictor. American Zoologist, 27, 41–7.
Summers, C.H. and Norman, M.F. (1988a) Chronic low humidity stress in the lizard Anolis carolinensis: changes in diurnal corticosterone rhythms. Journal of Experimental Zoology, 247, 271–8.
Summers, C.H. and Norman, M.F. (1988b) Chronic low humidity stress in the lizard Anolis carolinensis: effects of ovarian and oviductal recrudescence. Journal of Experimental Zoology, 248, 192–8.
Thorson, T.B. (1968) Body fluid partitioning in Reptilia. Copeia, 1968, 592–601.
Townsend, C.R. and Cole, C.J. (1985) Additional notes on requirements of captive whiptail lizards (Cnemidophorus), with emphasis on ultraviolet radiation. Zoo Biology, 4, 49–55.
Tracy, C.R. (1982) Biophysical modeling in reptilian physiology and ecology, in Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. 12, Physiology C, Physiological Ecology, (eds C. Gans and F.H. Pough), Academic Press, New York, pp. 275–321.
Troyer, K.E. (1984a) Structure and function of the digestive tract of a herbivorous lizard Iguana iguana. Physiological Zoology, 57, 1–8.
Troyer, K.E. (1984b) Diet selection and digestion in Iguana iguana: the importance of age and nutrient requirements. Oecologia, 61, 201–7.
Troyer, K.E. (1987) Small differences in daytime body temperature affect digestion of natural food in a herbivorous lizard (Iguana iguana). Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, 87A, 623–6.
Ultsch, G.R. and Anderson, J.F. (1986) The respiratory microenvironment within the burrows of gopher tortoises (Gopherus polyphemus). Copeia, 1986, 787–95.
White, F.N. (1976) Circulation, in Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. 5, Physiology A, (eds C. Gans and W.R. Dawson), Academic Press, New York, pp. 275–334.
Wood, S.C. (1991) Interactions between hypoxia and hypothermia. Annual Review of Physiology, 53, 71–85.
Yokota, S.D., Benyajati, S., and Dantzler, W.H. (1985) Renal function in sea snakes I. Glomerular filtration rate and water handling. American Journal of Physiology, 249, R228–36.
Zimmerman, K. and Heatwole, H. (1990) Cutaneous photoreception: a new sensory mechanism for reptiles. Copeia, 1990, 860–2.
Zug, G.A. and Dunson, W.A. (1979) Salinity preference in fresh water and estuarine snakes (Nerodia sipedon and N. fasciata). Florida Scientist, 42, 1–8.
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1995 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Lillywhite, H.B., Gatten, R.E. (1995). Physiology and functional anatomy. In: Warwick, C., Frye, F.L., Murphy, J.B. (eds) Health and Welfare of Captive Reptiles. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-1222-2_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-1222-2_2
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-1-4020-0403-2
Online ISBN: 978-94-011-1222-2
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive