Keywords

These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

1 Career Development

The meaning of work and career in the contemporary world has undergone significant revision and reformulation as a result of the evolution of work in post-industrial, knowledge economies (Patton & McMahon, 2006). Career has been previously and variously conceptualised in terms of personality types suited to certain work environments, developmental stages, self-efficacy for work behaviours, self-narratives of personal identity, and in terms of personal relationships (McIlveen, 2009). Indeed, a career is more than a job (McMahon & Tatham, 2001) in the contemporary era; career can be conceptualised as a multifaceted, complex, personal process that evolves over a person’s lifetime, and is influenced by dynamic interactions amongst personal, interpersonal, societal, economic, and environmental factors (Patton & McMahon, 2006). ‘Careers are unique to each person and are dynamic: unfolding throughout life. Careers include how persons balance their paid and unpaid work and personal life roles’ (Career Industry Council of Australia, 2006, p. 37). This implies a need for individuals to engage in career self-management to: (i) participate in lifelong learning supportive of career goals; (ii) locate and effectively use career information; (iii) understand the relationship between work, society, and the economy; (iv) secure/create and maintain work; (v) make career-enhancing decisions; (vi) maintain balanced life and work roles; (vii) understand the changing nature of life and work roles; and (viii) understand, engage in, and manage the career-building process (Ministerial Council on Education Employment Training and Youth Affairs, 2009).

It is within this conceptual remit that we explore the potential of career development learning to inform the pedagogy of work-integrated learning. The position advanced here was derived from a major national project that explored the relationship of the two in the context of the Australian higher education system (Smith et al., 2009). Specifically, it is purported that career development learning makes higher education meaningful for students by personalising their learning: enhancing their awareness of the relationships amongst their disciplinary studies, work-related learning, and their personal aspirations. Furthermore, career development learning supports students’ effective decision making and transitions into and through the worlds-of-work. Ultimately, we view career development learning through the lens of a philosophy that sees higher education as growth (Dewey, 1916); as a developmental process embedded in lifelong learning.

2 Career Development Learning in Higher Education

An objective of the project (Smith et al., 2009) was to explore approaches to the delivery of career development learning within the higher education system across some 30 universities in Australia; all of which have a career service of some kind; ordinarily operating as a discrete organisational unit on a university campus; offering the following to services to students:

  • advice, support, and delivery of career development learning into the curriculum;

  • career assessment and counselling, including selection and change of major;

  • career education classes;

  • information services relating to occupations, employers, and educational institutions;

  • employment placement services for casual, vacation, internship, and graduate employment;

  • coordination of employer interviewing;

  • operating large-scale employment events (e.g., career fair);

  • training on employment application processes (e.g., resumes); and

  • academic crisis counselling (e.g., considering dropping out) (Department of Education Employment & Workplace Relations, 2008).

The project discussed here entailed several applied research inquiries. These comprised focus groups and surveys involving university personnel and employers, and interviews of experts to further explore selected cases of practice that demonstrated innovative approaches and excellence. In addition, there was a national symposium on career development learning and work-integrated learning, including career development practitioners, academics, work-integrated learning coordinators, employers, students, professional associations, and government representatives. At this national symposium, participants formulated key themes and principles for effective career service practice. The symposium included discussions from and considerations of literature reviews (McIlveen et al., 2008) and papers delivered by key experts in the field (Barrie, 2008; Kenworthy-U’Ren, 2008; McLennan, 2008; Watts, 2008a, b). The national symposium was followed by a national forum of employers and university students, which further explored and articulated the themes, models, and principles formulated in the national symposium. Project team members also presented papers and conducted workshops in various national and international forums and conferences to articulate and further refine the themes, models, and principles in response to feedback (e.g., McIlveen et al., 2009a; Smith & Tyler, 2009; Smith, Torjul, Brooks, & Tyler, 2008; Tyler, 2008). Finally, a website was produced to serve as a public repository of resources for students, university staff, and employers. This chapter presents a summary of some of the project’s findings, in particular a conceptual framework for career development learning and a graphical model for guiding reflection upon work-integrated learning.

3 Alignment of Work-Integrated Learning and Career Development Learning

Although there is no comprehensive and broadly accepted definition of work-integrated learning in the Australian higher education sector (Patrick et al., 2008), a study of the perspectives of university career development practitioners (McIlveen et al., 2009b) found that the description of work-related learning presented by Moreland (2005) was acceptable as a tentative definition of work-integrated learning:

Work-related learning involves students learning about themselves and the world-of-work in order to empower them to enter and succeed in the world-of-work and their wider lives. Work-related learning involves: learning about oneself; learning and practising skills and personal attributes of value in the world-of-work; experiencing the world-of-work in order to provide insights and learning into the world-of-work associated with one’s university studies; and experiencing and learning how to learn and manage oneself in a range of situations, including those found at work. (Moreland, 2005, p. 4)

Moreland’s (2005) description of work-related learning furnishes a comparison with career development learning, which can be conceived of as:

Learning about the content and process of career development or life/career management. The content of career development learning in essence represents learning about self and learning about the world of work. Process learning represents the development of the skills necessary to navigate a successful and satisfying life/career. (McMahon, Patton, & Tatham, 2003, p. 6)

In this way, career development learning focuses on the means by which individuals can successfully manage their lives, learning, and work.

Career development learning occurs in a range of educational and work contexts, and aims to assist students to:

  • develop knowledge and understanding of themselves and others as individuals, including the personal resources both actual and potential they bring to situations (i.e., strengths, limitations, abilities, skills, qualities, needs, attitudes, and values);

  • develop knowledge and understanding of the general structures of [post-university] life, the range of opportunities and alternative pathways, and the demands, rewards, and satisfaction associated with each;

  • learn how to make considered choices and plan options in relation to anticipated careers, occupations, and life roles; and

  • effectively manage the implementation of the considered choices and the transitions from [university] to [post-university] situations in adult life and work life (McCowan & McKenzie, 1997, p. 17).

The concordance between career development learning and work-integrated learning is evident in these educational aims. The first of the aforementioned points, for example, can be seen in work-integrated learning practices, such as preparing for and reflecting upon work-related learning experiences. The second and third points may pertain to students’ preparation as well as their reflections upon learning whilst in a work environment. The final point exemplifies career development learning and work-integrated learning as means of transition and application of learning for the world-of-work. Essentially, both use work as a crucible for personal development and positive exploitation of higher learning. Towards realising a greater consonance to those ends, we now consider some of the benefits of career development learning.

4 Benefits and Scope of Career Development Learning

Career development learning has potential to produce benefits with respect to social equity and human capital (Access Economics, 2006; Hughes, Bosley, Bowes, & Bysshe, 2002; Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2004; Watts, 2005; Watts, Sweet, Haines, & McMahon, 2006). The benefits of career development learning may be considered from the perspectives of the individual learner; the organisation that employs the individual, and society broadly; and the benefits may accrue within immediate, intermediate, and long-term time frames (Watts, 1999). Immediate benefits may be readily evident and felt by an individual who feels more confident and efficacious with regard to understanding his or her career decisions, plans, and the resources required to implement those plans (e.g., deciding to take a particular degree discipline to become a professional). With regard to the intermediate term, say 6–12 months into a programme of study, as in the previous example, career development learning may provide the benefits of reflecting upon past academic and workplace learning and assimilating new experiences into a burgeoning sense of professional identity; or it may facilitate an individual’s accommodation of learning experiences that challenged previously held beliefs or expectations of a degree programme and the profession in sight. In the long term, career development learning may facilitate a sound decision to enter training for a particular profession; alternatively, it may facilitate a decision to adjust career plans and undertake different training pathways for future employability. With regard to the benefits for society-at-large, it is purported that the impact of career development learning upon the individual, multiplied to a societal level, may result in improved student retention and progression in higher education; which can be rendered down to an economic value in terms of public investment in higher education.

The empirical status of career development learning is important for establishing an evidence-based approach to its teaching and facilitating students’ learning. There is a considerable and long-standing body of empirical evidence indicating the benefits of career development learning to individuals (Brown & Ryan Krane, 2000; Rochlen, Milburn, & Hill, 2004; Whiston & Oliver, 2005). For example, empirical meta-analytic studies of career development have demonstrated it to be efficacious: with individualised one-on-one career intervention showing the greatest effect size; followed in effect size by career education delivered in a classroom setting; then by the effect of services not delivered by personnel (e.g., ICT delivery) (Whiston, Sexton, & Lasoff, 1998). Longitudinal investigations also indicate a sustained positive impact from individual career guidance (e.g., Bimrose & Barnes, 2006). There is insufficient space to present a review of all of the studies relevant to career development learning; instead, we present a sample of the literature pertaining to two important dimensions of career development learning: engagement with studies and graduate employability. These dimensions were selected because they aligned with the purposes and outcomes of work-integrated learning in higher education.

4.1 Engagement with Studies

In relation to work-related learning, engaging in course and career-related employment whilst studying has similarly been found to have positive effects upon academic performance (Derous & Ryan, 2008). Career-related self-efficacy, occupational decidedness, interests, and personality traits have been shown to have a predictive relationship with academic performance and engagement with studies (Brown et al., 2008; Rottinghaus, Lindley, Green, & Borgen, 2002; Sandler, 2000; Scott & Ciani, 2008). Career education coursework, for example, has been found to produce positive outputs: improved career decision-making skills, career decidedness, and vocational identity (Folsom & Reardon, 2003; Fouad, Cotter, & Kantamneni, 2009). Such outcomes assist students to more rationally explore and choose their courses of study and relevant graduate employment options. For example, career development learning has been used to foster first-year undergraduate engineering students’ engagement with their studies by assisting them to explore their decision to enter the discipline (Palmer & Bray, 2002); and it has been used to better prepare final-year students for the world-of-work by teaching them skills in self-assessment of employability in relation to current demands in the employment market (Graham, 1999; McIlveen & Gibson, 2000). Folsom and Reardon’s (2003) review of 38 empirical studies, conducted over a 25-year period, found evidence of positive effects upon: (i) job satisfaction, (ii) selecting a degree major, (iii) course satisfaction, (iv) retention and graduation rates, and (v) grade-point average. Given that career-related anxiety in undergraduate students is a predictor of academic persistence, career guidance can be implemented as an additional strategy to address student retention and progression (Kahn, Nauta, Gailbreath, Tipps, & Chartrand, 2002).

In summary, the empirical research pertaining to career development learning and engagement with studies provides a platform for our assertion that career development learning can contribute to students making meaningful sense of their higher learning by enabling them to construct relationships amongst their personal aspirations, studies, and experiences of work. It is important also to consider career development learning in terms of its relationship with graduate employability.

4.2 Graduate Employability

Cutting across graduate employability, employability skills, and graduate attributes is the notion of lifelong career self-management (Bridgstock, 2009; King, 2004), which implies an emphasis upon developing and sustaining individuals’ economic viability over their life courses. Indeed, employability skills and graduate attributes may not be entirely sufficient foci for the design of curriculum and programmes in higher learning that effectively engage students’ aspirations. Instead, frameworks for the development of personally meaningful career management skills in students (Bridgstock, 2009), such as the Australian Blueprint for Career Development (Ministerial Council on Education Employment Training and Youth Affairs, 2009), may present a personally relevant and, therefore, student-centred approach to higher learning and ultimate employability.

Career development learning addresses key issues of directionality and sustainability of graduate employability (Watts, 2008b); thus, it entails assisting students clarify their career aspirations and how they can manage their progress over time. Career development programmes addressing employability are most notably evident in the delivery of training in employability skills (e.g., McIlveen & Pensiero, 2008) and mentorship programmes (e.g., Theobald, Nancarrow, & McCowan, 1999). There has also been considerable work completed in the application of e-portfolios for the recording of and reflection upon experiences pertaining to employability skills (Colyer & Howell, 2004; Leece, 2005; McCowan, Harper, & Hauville, 2005). These educational initiatives exemplify how career development learning can contribute to improving employability, but it should be noted that career development learning aims for much more than facilitating employability (Bridgstock, 2009); first and foremost, it is fundamental to personal growth and development, and lifelong learning (Patton & McMahon, 2006). Accordingly, from a perspective of the scholarship of teaching and learning it is important that career development learning be linked to conceptual frameworks that can inform curriculum design and evaluation.

5 Conceptual Frameworks for Career Development Learning

As part of the project we set out to identify broad conceptual models that could inform the design and delivery of career development learning and work-integrated learning. In this section, we present two frameworks that were constructively modified or generated by participants at the national symposium, and refined by students and employers at their respective national forum.

5.1 Domains of Career Development Learning: DOTS Framework

Given the requirement to align or reconcile complexes of factors that comprise the goals for career development learning, it was concluded that the conceptual framework that best satisfied criteria in terms of integration with the world-of-work, self-reflection, and transferability across settings was the DOTS framework (Watts, 2006). We do not assert that the DOTS model is ultimately the best of all purposes; for indeed, there are other approaches that have more extensively articulated career management competencies, such as the eleven competencies in the Australian Blueprint for Career Development (Ministerial Council on Education Employment Training and Youth Affairs, 2009). The DOTS framework was selected for three reasons. First, it has sustained decades of implementation in the higher education sector, particularly in the United Kingdom. Second, DOTS may be represented in a succinct format. Finally, it lends itself to being readily understood and applied by individuals not heavily schooled in the theory of career development. Four domains comprise the DOTS model: (i) self-awareness, (ii) opportunity awareness, (iii) decision making, and (iv) transition learning (Watts, 2006). Both individually and collectively, they provide a framework for organising and ordering career learning. These are now briefly described.

5.2 Self-Awareness

The notion of self-awareness is of fundamental to career development learning and reflexivity. According to the DOTS model, self-awareness is comprised of the ability to:

  • identify knowledge, abilities, and transferable skills developed by one’s degree;

  • identify personal skills and how these can be deployed;

  • identify one’s interests, values, and personality in the context of vocational and life planning;

  • identify strengths and weaknesses, and areas requiring further development;

  • develop a self-reflective stance to academic work and other activities; and

  • synthesise one’s key strengths, goals, and motivations into a rounded personal profile (Watts, 2006, pp. 10–11).

Self-awareness underpins students’ personal aspirations and selection of courses of study. It contributes to students’ relating of disciplinary studies to their purposes in undertaking higher education; and it consequently influences students’ engagement and progress with studies. For example, self-awareness may contribute to a student’s self-appraisal and decision making with regard to which skills he/she needs to enhance whilst participating in a work-integrated learning programme. Career development learning coursework learning activities might include such tasks as completing a self-assessment, using standardised psychometric tools or semi-structured questionnaires, and then the writing of a reflective essay, based upon those self-assessment data, written to a body of disciplinary theory.

5.3 Opportunity Awareness

Just as students must be self-aware, they must also be aware of the worlds-of-work if they are to align their interests and energies in an appropriate occupational direction. According to the DOTS model, opportunity awareness requires student to:

  • demonstrate knowledge of general trends in graduate employment and opportunities for graduates in one’s discipline;

  • demonstrate understanding of the requirements of graduate recruiters; and

  • demonstrate research-based knowledge of typical degree-related career options and options in which one is interested (Watts, 2006, pp. 10–11).

It would make little sense to a student if a work-integrated learning placement is unrelated to his or her aspirations and learning needs. By being aware of industry trends and requirements, a student is better able to judge the personal relevance and value of a work-integrated learning experience. Thus, a student’s awareness of opportunities contributes to how successfully a work-integrated learning experience is rationally considered, secured, and exploited. Coursework learning activities might include students conducting research into the employment market for their particular discipline or a profession to which they aspire by using online search engines, newspapers, or professional newsletters, or conducting interviews with industry recruiters, and then writing a report of their findings with a discussion based upon disciplinary theory.

5.4 Decision Making

Self-awareness and understanding opportunities in the worlds-of-work are important, but pragmatically deciding upon directions and actions is quite another thing. Accordingly, the DOTS model stipulates that students can:

  • identify the key elements of career decision making in the context of life planning;

  • relate self-awareness to knowledge of different opportunities;

  • evaluate how personal priorities may impact upon future career options;

  • devise a short/medium-term career development action plan;

  • identify tactics for addressing the role of chance in career development; and

  • review changing plans and ideas on an ongoing basis (Watts, 2006, pp. 10–11).

Decision making builds upon self-awareness and opportunity awareness and pertains directly to actions, such as choosing the most appropriate and valuable work-integrated learning experience. An indiscriminate approach to selecting a learning experience will not effectively serve a student, their site of learning (e.g., workplace), or supervisors. A decision made well will likely prevent negative experiences for all concerned and contribute to students optimally exploiting their work-integrated learning. Coursework learning activities might include the students conducting analyses of case studies in which the career history and decision making of high profile industry experts in a disciplinary field are documented. Their responses to case studies might include speculation on how they might have approached the moments and issues experienced by the individual cases.

5.5 Transition Learning

Ultimately, students must progress from the worlds-of-learning to the worlds-of-work, and back again over their lifetimes. The DOTS model requires students not only to understand their direction, but also to make effective transitions from learning to work. They should:

  • demonstrate understanding of effective opportunity-search strategies;

  • apply understanding of recruitment/selection methods to applications;

  • demonstrate ability to use relevant vacancy information, including ways of accessing unadvertised vacancies;

  • identify challenges and obstacles to success in obtaining suitable opportunities and strategies for addressing them;

  • demonstrate capacity to vary self-presentation to meet requirements of specific opportunities; and

  • demonstrate ability to present oneself effectively in selection interviews and other selection processes (Watts, 2006, pp. 10–11).

Graduate employers are increasingly using vacation work or industry experience programmes as pre-recruitment strategies, and work-integrated learning can often align with these experiences (High Fliers Research, 2008). Accordingly, learning how to make successful transitions into placements, particularly if they are situated in a workplace (e.g., formally applying for positions), underpins how students can successfully secure and then retain access to a work-integrated learning placement. Coursework learning activities might build upon aforementioned activities; such as conducting research into the skills required in the employment market for a particular profession and then orally presenting the report of the research findings in class, or via electronic media that can be used to engage other students or prospective employers (e.g., wiki, e-portfolio).

These elements of career development learning may also be considered as cyclical stages, with a person progressively moving through each whilst generating understanding of himself or herself and pragmatic solutions to career-related problems or challenges. A spiral curriculum could be implemented to enable students to advance their understanding and to progressively develop skills associated with each element. Assignments, projects, or other assessable coursework may require students to engage in directed readings, research tasks, journals, or other reflective learning activities in relation to their past, current, and lifelong employability using their particular discipline area of interest as a site of personalised enquiry and self-directed learning. Having just now set out a framework for considering the possible content of career development learning and work-integrated learning programmes in terms of the elements the DOTS model, we now turn to a metaphorical model of a process of learning: reflection.

6 Career Development Learning for Reflective Learning

Career development learning inherently requires a student to (a) engage in processes of self-assessment in terms of individual dimensions (e.g., knowledge, skills, and interests) and (b) perform an appraisal of the context in which the student situates learning in relation to his or her discipline or profession. As a result of it being a personalised pedagogy of self – as a process of self-managed learning and growth – career development learning lends itself to teaching and learning approaches that use reflection in higher learning. The two-way mirror shown in Fig. 9.1 depicts the notion of career development learning being used as a mirror for reflection. The two-way mirror concept was initially formulated by participants in the national symposium (Smith et al., 2009). There are three core features of the depiction: the learner, the workplace, and the mirror itself. As the systems theory framework of career development (Patton & McMahon, 2006) suggests, career development learning occurs as a result of a range of influences at the personal level and at the contextual level. At the personal level, individuals’ experiences of higher learning are influenced by: self-concept and self-esteem; personality; ethnicity; physical attributes; aptitudes; age; skills; interests; ability; values; sexual orientation; gender; health; disability beliefs; and work knowledge. The personal influences also include peers, home, family, and community, and these are inevitably influenced by the prevailing higher-order external influences: media; employment market; education institutions; workplace legislation; workplace contexts; political decisions; and globalisation. Similarly, a workplace has its own internal influences: organisational structure, expectations, culture, and staff skill sets and behaviour. Workplaces are also influenced by wider community, industry, and government factors. The third feature, career development learning, is the mirror.

Fig. 9.1
figure 1

Two-way mirror of career development learning and work-integrated learning

Full size image

There are two perspectives on this mirror: that of the learner and that of the workplace. The learner uses career development learning to reflect upon himself/herself as outlined in the DOTS model previously and in terms of the myriad influences that constitute his/her personal perspective. The workplace can similarly use career development learning to reflect upon its internal operations with regard to how it implements work-integrated learning programmes; perhaps by considering how it establishes a learning environment that best facilitates student learning and staff supervision in terms of the elements in the DOTS model. In using the two-way mirror as a metaphor, it is useful to consider those two perspectives at three key stages: before, during, and after a learning experience.

6.1 The Learner’s Perspective

Before the workplace experience, learners can be encouraged to reflect upon themselves in order to make informed choices about a suitable workplace experience; that is, to be critically reflexive. During the workplace experience, learners can gain insights into the structure and culture of the workplace and its requisite skills sets and expectations. This can be achieved through observation and engagement in work-related activities. After the workplace experience, learners can be encouraged and supported in using reflective practices that lead to the transformation of the experience into learning and can inform their career and academic decision making. These practices can also be used for self-development and articulation of experiences and skills for potential job search activities. In summary, career development learning can be used to facilitate students’ preparation for work-integrated learning, and then to reflect upon their learning during and after so as to exploit the experience as a personally meaningful one.

6.2 The Workplace Perspective

Before hosting the workplace experience, an organisation reflects upon their internal contexts, establishing appropriate projects, tasks, and related skills requirements to conduct the activities, as well as identifying current staff who have the right skills to oversee the project and who may benefit the most from the experience. During the workplace experience, the organisation may gain knowledge and understanding of future workers and their capacities, as well as an enhanced understanding of the university sector itself. After the workplace experience, the staff of an organisation involved in work-integrated learning may reflect upon new ideas and approaches brought to the organisation and consider how these may be incorporated in future business processes. Staff involved in project supervision would also reflect upon their own skill development and factor this reflection into their own career and development plans. In addition, the organisation reflects upon knowledge of future workers to inform their attraction, recruitment, and retention strategies. In summary, an organisation can consider the planning, operation, and evaluation of a work-integrated learning programme not only in terms of its impact upon the student, but additionally in terms of how it might improve organisational performance when using work-integrated learning as a pre-recruitment employment strategy (High Fliers Research, 2007).

7 Conclusion: Towards Partnerships in Pedagogy

Through an iterative process involving stakeholders in various forums and consultations conducted throughout the national project, a set of principles for practice were developed for the design and delivery of career development learning and work-integrated learning (Smith et al., 2009). These principles capture important practice- and resource-related themes that might shape the effective provision of career learning. The project findings emphasised the value of building and maintaining flexible partnerships amongst stakeholders within universities and industry. Effective relationships and partnerships would serve to increase the range and number of work-integrated learning opportunities and bring stakeholders into a closer understanding of how work-integrated learning is to be taught from their various perspectives. It was concluded that work-related learning experiences can, and should, provide genuine career development learning opportunities for all students, particularly those who may not have ready access to sources of professional networks. Multiple experiences and contexts enrich this learning, and accordingly all forms of work (e.g., voluntary, casual) should be considered as possible sites for work-integrated learning. Career development learning is by its very nature student-centred, and it should be designed to actively engage students in their workplace experience by rendering their work-related learning meaningful in terms of their own career development. Stakeholders also suggested that career development learning supports quality student-centred learning opportunities across all aspects of students’ lives, especially given the myriad influences that comprise careers (cf. Patton and McMahon’s (2006) systems theory framework). It was also recommended that universities encourage students’ career development and workplace learning by supporting their capacity to systematically reflect on, record, and articulate the acquired skills and experience (e.g., portfolios, assessment). Finally, the stakeholders emphasised the importance of developing quality assurance systems for work-integrated learning and career development learning so that all stakeholders were fairly treated in terms of their client-needs.

In this chapter, we have highlighted some of the conceptual dimensions of career development learning that can align with work-integrated learning. In reflecting upon this alignment we concur with Dewey: ‘When educators conceive of vocational guidance as something which leads up to a definitive, irretrievable, and complete choice, both education and the chosen vocation are likely to be rigid, hampering further growth’ (1916, p. 311). Instead, career development learning should be put to use as means of making higher education personalised, meaningful, relevant, and pragmatically valuable. It should prepare students for the ever-evolving world-of-work, in the sense of enhancing employability, and for a life of learning for personal growth. Furthermore, in this chapter the empirical evidence supporting career development learning’s benefits and scope of practices was highlighted to invite consideration of a research agenda for the scholarship of teaching and learning in this field; thus, we conclude with a question: How should career development learning be implemented with curriculum to most effectively exploit its facility as a personally transformative pedagogy, so as to deepen students’ engagement with, and improve the learning outcomes derived from, work-integrated learning in higher education?