Abstract
The oceanic distributions of nutrients and patterns of biological production are controlled by the interplay of biogeochemical and physical processes, and external sources. Biological and chemical processes lead to the transformation of nutrients between inorganic and organic forms, and also between dissolved and particulate forms. Physical processes redistribute nutrients within the water column through transport and mixing. The combined role of biogeochemical and physical processes is reflected in the observed distributions of nitrate, phosphate and silicate (macro-nutrients). These distributions broadly reflect those of classical water masses, as defined by temperature and salinity, highlighting the important role of physical transport. However, there are also significant differences between the nutrient and water-mass distributions, notably with nutrients showing stronger vertical and basin-to-basin contrasts. Biological production leads to these greater nutrient contrasts with inorganic nutrients consumed and converted to organic matter in the surface, sunlit ocean. A small fraction of the organic matter in this euphotic zone is exported to depth, driven by the gravitational sinking of particles and subduction of dissolved organic matter. This organic fallout is eventually remineralised leading to an accumulation of inorganic nutrients in deeper and older water masses.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abell J, Emerson S, Renaud P (2000) Distribution of TOP, TON, and TOC in the North Pacific subtropical gyre: implications for nutrient supply in the surface ocean and remineralisation in the upper thermocline. J Mar Res 58:203–222
Aebischer NJ, Coulson JC, Colebrook JM (1990) Parallel long-term trends across four marine trophic levels and weather. Nature 347:753–755
Anderson TR, Williams PJL (1999) A one-dimensional model of dissolved organic carbon cycling in the water column incorporating combined biological-photochemical dependence. Global Biogeochem Cy 13:337–349
Andrews DJ, Holton JR, Leovy CB (1987) Middle atmosphere dynamics. Academic Press, 489 pp
Archer D, Johnson EK (2000) A model of the iron cycle in the ocean. Global Biogeochem Cy 14:269–279
Backhaus JO, Wehde H, Hegseth EN, Kampf J (1999) ‘Phyto-convection’: the role of oceanic convection on primary production. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 189:77–92
Barber RT (1992) Geologic and climatic time scales of nutrient variability. In: Falkowski PG, Woodhead AD (eds) Primary productivity and biogeochemical cycles in the sea. Plenum Press, New York, pp 89–106
Bates N (2001) Interannual variability of oceanic CO2 and biogeochemical properties in the Western North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre. Deep-Sea Res Pt II 48:1507–1528
Behrenfeld MJ, Falkowski PG (1997) Photosynthetic rates derived from satellite-based chlorophyll concentration. Limnol Oceanogr 42:1–20
Bjerknes J (1964) Atlantic air-sea interaction. Adv Geophys, 20,1–82
Boyle EA (1988) Cadmium: chemical tracer of deepwater paleoce-anography. Paleoceanography 3:471–489
Boyle EA, Keigwin L (1987) North Atlantic thermohaline circulation during the past 20000 years linked to high-latitude surface temperature. Nature 330:35–40
Boyle EA, Sclater FR, Edmond JM (1976) On the marine geochemistry of cadmium. Nature 263:42–44
Broecker WS (1991) The great ocean conveyor. Oceanography 4:79–89
Cayan DR (1992) Latent and sensible heat flux anomalies over the Northern Oceans: driving the sea surface temperature. J Phys Oceanogr 22:859–881
Chai F, Lindley ST, Barber RT (1996) Origin and maintenance of a high nitrate condition in the Equatorial Pacific. Deep-Sea Res Pt II 43:1031–1064
Chavez FP, Strutton PG, McPhaden MJ (1998) Biological-physical coupling in the central equatorial Pacific during the onset of the 1997-98 El Nino. Geophys Res Lett 25:3543–3546
Chavez FP, Strutton PG, Friedrich GE, Feely RA, Feldman GC, Foley DG, McFaden MJ (1999) Biological and chemical response of the Equatorial Pacific Ocean to the 1997–98 El Nino. Science 286:2126–2131
Christian JR, Verschell MA, Murtugudde R, Busalacchi AJ, McClain CR (2002) Biogeochemical modelling of the tropical Pacific Ocean. II. Iron biogoechemistry. Deep-Sea Res Pt II 49:545–565
Cipollini P, Cromwell D, Challenor PG, Raffaglio S (2001) Rossby waves detected in global ocean colour data. Geophys Res Lett 28:323–326
Coale KH, Fitzwater SE, Gordon RM, Johnson KS, RT Barber (1996) Control of community growth and export production by up-welled iron in the equatorial Pacific Ocean. Nature 379:621–624
Danabasoglu G, McWilliams JC, Gent PR (1994) The role of mesoscale tracer transports in the global ocean circulation. Science 264:1123–1126
Danielsen EF (1968) Stratospheric-tropospheric exchange based on radioactivity, ozone and potential vorticity. J Atmos Sei, 25,502–518
Denman KL, Gargett AE (1995) Biological-physical interactions in the upper ocean: the role of vertical and small scale trans-port processes. Annu Rev Fluid Mech 27:225–255
Dickson R, Lazier J, Meinke J, Rhines P, Swift J (1996) Long-term coordinated changes in convective activity of the North Atlantic. Prog Oceanogr 38:241–295
Döös K, Webb DJ (1994) The Deacon cell and the other meridional cells of the Southern Ocean. J Phys Oceanogr 24:429–442
Duarte CM, Agusti S (1998) The CO2 balance of unproductive aquatic ecosystems. Science 281:234–236
Dutkiewicz S, Follows M, Marshall J, Gregg WW (2001) Interannual variability of phytoplankton abundances in the North Atlantic. Deep-Sea Res Pt II 48:2323–2344
Eliassen A (1962) On the vertical circulation in frontal zones. Geofysiske Publikasjoner, Geophysica Norvegica XXIV:147–160
Emerson S, Quay P, Karl D, Winn C, Tupas L, Landry M (1997) Experimental determination of the organic carbon flux from open-ocean surface waters. Nature 389:951–954
Falkowski PG, Ziemann D, Kolber Z, Bienfang PK (1991) Role of eddy pumping in enhancing primary production in the ocean. Nature 352:55–58
Fasham MJR (1995) Variations in the seasonal cycle of biological production in subarctic oceans; a model sensitivity analysis. Deep-Sea Res Pt I 42:1111–1149
Flierl GR, Davis CS (1993) Biological effects of Gulf Stream meandering. J Mar Res 51:529–560
Follows MJ, Dutkiewicz S (2002) Meteorological modulation of the North Atlantic spring bloom. Deep-Sea Res Pt II 49:321–344
Follows MJ, Marshall JC (1994) Eddy-driven exchange at ocean fronts. Ocean modelling 102:5–9
Gacic M, Civitarese G, Miserocchi S, Cardin V, Crise A, Mauri E (2002) The open-ocean convection in the Southern Adriatic: a controlling mechanism of the spring phytoplankton bloom. Cont Shelf Res 22:1897–1908
Ganachaud A, Wunsch C (2002) Oceanic nutrient and oxygen transports and bounds on export production during the World Ocean Circulation Experiment. Global Biogeochem Cy, vol. 16, 4:1057
Garçon VC, Oschlies A, Doney SC, McGillicuddy D, Waniek J (2001) The role of mesoscale variability on plankton dynamics in the North Atlantic. Deep-Sea Res Pt II 48:2199–2226
Gent PR, Willebrand J, McDougall TJ, McWilliams JC (1995) Parameterising eddy-induced tracer transports in ocean circulation models. J Phys Oceanogr 25:463–474
Gill AE, Green JSA, Simmons AJ (1974) Energy partition in the large-scale ocean circulation and the production of mid-ocean eddies. Deep-Sea Res 21:499–528
Gnanadesikan A (1998) A global model of silicon cycling: sensitivity to eddy parameterization and dissolution. Global Biogeochem Cy 13:199–220
Godfrey JS, Johnson GC, McPhaden MJ, Reverdin G, Wijffels SE (2001) The tropical ocean circulation. In: Siedler G, Church J, Gould J (eds) Ocean circulation and climate. Academic Press, pp 215–246
Green JSA (1981) Trough-ridge systems as slant-wise convection. In: Atkinson BW (ed) Dynamical meteorology: an introductory selection. Methuen & Co. Ltd, pp 176–194
Gruber N, Sarmiento JL (1997) Global patterns of marine nitrogen fixation and denitrification. Global Biogeochem Cy 11:235–266
Hallberg R, Gnanadesikan A (2001) An exploration of the role of transient eddies in determining the transport of a zonally reentrant current. J Phys Oceanogr 31:3312–3330
Hanawa K, Talley L (2001) Mode waters. In: Siedler G, Church J, Gould J (eds) Ocean circulation and climate. Academic Press, PP 373–386
Hughes CW, Ash E (2001) Eddy forcing of the mean flow in the Southern Ocean. J Geophys Res 106:2713–2722
Hurrell JW (1995) Decadal trends in the North Atlantic Oscillation: regional temperatures and precipitation. Science 269: 676–679
Hutchings L, Pitcher GG, Probyn TA, Bailey GW (1995) The chemical and biological consequences of coastal upwelling. In: Summerhayes CP, Emeis K-C, Angel MV, Smith RL, Zeitzchel B (eds) Upwelling in the ocean: modern processes and ancient records. John Wiley & Sons, New York, pp 65–81
Jackson GA, Williams PM (1985) Importance of dissolved organic nitrogen and phosphorus to biological nutrient cycling. Deep-Sea Res 32:223–235
Jenkins WJ (1982) Oxygen utilization rates in North Atlantic subtropical gyre and primary production in oligotrophic systems. Nature 300:246–248
Jenkins WJ (1988) Nitrate flux into the photic zone near Bermuda. Nature 331:521–523
Jenkins WJ, Goldman JC (1985) Seasonal oxygen cycling and primary production in the Sargasso Sea. J Mar Res 43:465–491
Karl DM (1999) A sea of change: biogeochemical variability in the North Pacific subtropical gyre. Ecosystems 2:181–214
Karl D, Letelier R, Hebel D, Tupas L, Dore J, Christian J, Winn C (1995) Ecosystem changes in the north Pacific subtropical gyre attributed to the 1991–92 El Nino. Nature 373:230–234
Karoly DJ, Mcintosh PC, Berrisford P, McDougall TJ, Hirst AC (1997) Similarities of the Deacon cell in the Southern Ocean and Ferrel cells in the atmosphere. Q J Roy Meteor Soc 123:519–526
Killworth PD (2001) Rossby waves. In: Steele JH, Turekian KK, Thorpe SA (eds) Encyclopedia of ocean sciences. Academic Press, pp 2434–2443
Klein B, Roether WR, Manca BB, Bregant D, Beitzel V, Kovacevic V, Luchetta A (1999) The large deep water transient in the Eastern Mediterranean. Deep-Sea Res Pt I, 46,371–414
Knap A, Jickells T, Pszenny A, Galloway J (1986) Significance of atmospheric-derived fixed nitrogen on productivity of the Sargasso Sea. Nature 320:158–160
Ledwell JR, Watson AJ, Law CS (1993) Evidence for slow mixing across the pycnocline from an open-ocean tracer-release experiment. Nature 364:701–703
Lee M-M, Williams RG (2000) The role of eddies in the isopycnic transfer of nutrients and their impact on biological production. J Mar Res 58:895–917
Lee M-M, Marshall DP, Williams RG (1997) On the eddy transfer of tracers: advective or diffusive? J Mar Res 55:483–505
Lévy M, Mémery L, Madec G (1998) The onset of a bloom after deep winter convection in the northwest Mediterranean sea: mesoscale process study with a primitive equation model. J Marine Syst 16:7–21
Lévy M, Klein P, Treguier A-M (2001) Impact of sub-mesoscale physics on production and subduction of phytoplankton in an oligotrophic regime. J Mar Res 59:535–565
Lewis MR, Harrison WG, Oakley NS, Hebert D, Piatt T (1986) Vertical nitrate fluxes in the ohgotrophic ocean. Science 234:870–873
Macdonald AM (1995) Oceanic fluxes of mass, heat and freshwater: a global estimate and perspective. PhD. thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology/Woods Hole Océanographie Institute Joint program, Cambridge MA, 326 pp
Macdonald AM (1998) The global ocean circulation: a hydro-graphic estimate and regional analysis. Prog Oceanogr 41:281–382
Macdonald AM, Wunsch C (1996) An estimate of global ocean circulation and heat fluxes. Nature 382:436–439
Mahadevan A, Archer D (2000) Modelling the impact of fronts and mesoscale circulation on the nutrient supply and biogeochemistry of the upper ocean. J Geophys Res 105:1209–1225
Marshall D (1997) Subduction of water masses in an eddying ocean. J Mar Res 55:201–222
Marshall J, Schott F (1999) Open-ocean convection: observations, theory and models. Rev Geophys 37:1,1–64
Marshall JC, Nurser AJG, Williams RG (1993) Inferring the sub-duction rate and period over the North Atlantic. J Phys Oceanogr 23:1315–1329
Martin JH, Fitzwater SE (1988) Iron deficiency limits phytoplankton growth in the north-east Pacific subarctic. Nature 331:341–343
McCartney MS (1977) Subantarctic mode water. In: Angel MV (ed) A voyage of discovery: George Deacon 70th anniversary volume. Deep-Sea Res (suppl.) 103–119
McClain CR, Firestone J (1993) An investigation of Ekman upwelling in the North Atlantic. J Geophys Res 98:12327–12339
McGillicuddy DJ, Robinson AR (1997) Eddy-induced nutrient supply and new production in the Sargasso Sea. Deep-Sea Res Pt I 44:1427–1449
McGillicuddy DJ, Robinson AR, Siegel DA, Jannasch HW, Johnson R, Dickeys T, McNeil J, Michaels AF, Knap AH (1998) New evidence for the impact of mesoscale eddies on biogeochemical cycling in the Sargasso Sea. Nature 394:263–266
Mcintosh PC, McDougall TJ (1996) Isopycnal averaging and the residual mean circulation. J Phys Oceanogr 26:1655–1660
Menzel DW, Ryther JH (1961) Annual variations in primary production in the Sargasso Sea off Bermuda. Deep-Sea Res 7:282–288
Michaels AF, Knap AH, Dow RL, Gundersen K, Johnson RJ, Sorensen J, Close A, Knauer GA, Lohrenz SE, Asper VA, Tuel M, Bidigare R (1994) Seasonal patterns of ocean biogeochemistry at the U.S. JGOFS Bermuda Atlantic Time-series Study site. Deep-Sea Res Pt I 41:1013–1038
Michaels AF, Olson D, Sarmiento JL, Ammerman JW, Fanning K, Jahnke R, Knap AH, Lipschultz F, Prospero JM (1996) Inputs, losses and transformations of nitrogen and phosphorus in the pelagic North Atlantic Ocean. Biogeochemistry 35:181–226
Moore JK, Doney SC, Kleypas JA, Glover DM, Fung I (2002) An intermediate complexity marine ecosystem model for the global domain. Deep-Sea Res Pt II 49:403–462
Munk WH (1966) Abyssal recipes. Deep-Sea Res 13:707–730
Munk WH, Wunsch C (1998) Abyssal recipes II: energetics of tidal and wind mixing. Deep-Sea Res Pt I 45:1977–2010
Murtugudde RG, Signorini SR, Christian JR, Busalacchi AJ, McClain CR, Picaut J (1999) Ocean color variability of the tropical Indo-Pacific basin observed by SeaWiFS during 1997–1998. J Geophys Res 104:18351–18366
Newton CW (1978) Fronts and wave distributions in Gulf Stream and atmospheric jet stream. J Geophys Res 83, 9:4697–4706
Nurser AJG, Zhang JW (2000) Eddy-induced mixed-layer shallowing and mixed-layer/thermocline exchange. J Geophys Res 105:21851–21868
Orsi AH, Whitworth T, Nowlin WD (1995) On the meridional extent and fronts of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. Deep-Sea Res Pt I 42:641–673
Oschlies A (2002) Can eddies make ocean deserts bloom? Global Biogeochem Cy (in press)
Oschlies A, Garçon V (1998) Eddy-induced enhancement of primary production in a model of the North Atlantic Ocean. Nature 394:266–269
Pelegri JL, Csanady GT (1991) Nutrient transport and mixing in the Gulf Stream. J Geophys Res 96:2577–2583
Pelegri JL, Csanady GT, Martins A (1996) The North Atlantic nutrient stream. J Oceanogr 52:275–299
Philander SGH (1990) El Niño, La Nina and the Southern Oscillation. Academic Press, 293 pp
Pollard RT, Regier LA (1992) Vorticity and vertical circulation at an ocean front. J Phys Oceanogr 22:609–624
Pollard RT, Lucas MI, Read JF (2002) Physical controls on biogeochemical zonation in the Southern Ocean. Deep-Sea Res Pt II 49:3289–3305
Polzin KJ, Toole JM, Ledwell JR, Schmitt RW (1997) Spatial variability of turbulent mixing in the abyssal ocean. Science 276:93–96
Rhines PB (2001) Mesoscale Eddies. In: Steele JH, Turekian KK, Thorpe SA (eds) Encyclopedia of ocean sciences. Academic Press, pp 1717–1729
Rintoul SR, Wunsch C (1991) Mass, heat, oxygen and nutrient fluxes and budgets in the North Atlantic Ocean. Deep-Sea Res Pt I 38:S355–S377
Rintoul SR, Hughes C, Olbers D (2001) The Antarctic circumpolar current system. In: Siedler G, Church J, Gould J (eds) Ocean circulation and climate. Academic Press, pp 271–300
Roether WR, Manca BB, Klein B, Bregant D, Georgopoulos D, Beitzel V, Kovacevic V, Luchetta A (1996) Recent changes in Eastern Mediterranean deep waters. Science 271:333–335
Sathyendranathan S, Longhurst RS A, Caverhill CM, Piatt T (1995) Regionally and seasonally differentiated primary production in the North Atlantic. Deep-Sea Res Pt I 42:1773–1802
Schmitz WJ (1995) On the interbasin-scale thermohaline circulation. Rev Geophys 33:151–173
Siedler G, Church J, Gould J (eds) (2001) Ocean Circulation and Climate: Observing and Modelling the Global Ocean. Academic Press, 712 pp
Siegel DA, McGillicuddy DJ, Fields EA (1999) Mesoscale eddies, satellite altimetry and new production in the Sargasso Sea. J Geophys Res 104:13359–13379
Smith RL (1995) The physical processes of coastal ocean upwelling systems. In: Summerhayes CP, Emeis K-C, Angel MV, Smith RL, Zeitzchel B (eds) Upwelling in the ocean: modern processes and ancient records. John Wiley & Sons, New York, pp 39–64
Spall SA, Richards KJ (2000) A numerical model of mesoscale frontal instabilities; plankton dynamics -1, model formulation and initial experiments. Deep-Sea Res Pt I 47:1261–1301
Speer K, Rintoul SR, Sloyan B (2000) The diabatic Deacon cell. J Phys Oceanogr 30:3212–3222
Stommel H (1979) Determination of watermass properties of water pumped down from the Ekman layer to the geostrophic flow below. P Natl Acad Sei Usa 76:3051–3055
Strass VH (1992) Chlorophyll patchiness caused by mesoscale upwelling at fronts. Deep-Sea Res 39:75–96
Strass VH, Woods JD (1991) New production in the summer revealed by the meridional slope of the deep chlorophyll maximum. Deep-Sea Res 38:35–56
Sverdrup HU (1953) On conditions of the vernal blooming of phytoplankton. Journal du conseil international pour l’exploration de la mer 18:287–295
Taylor AH, Colebrook JM, Stephens JA, Baker NG (1992) Latitudinal displacements of the Gulf Stream and the abundance of plankton in the North-east Atlantic. J Mar Biol Assoc Uk 72:919–921
Toggweiler JR, Carson S (1995) What are upwelling systems contributing to the ocean's carbon and nutrient budgets? In: Summerhayes CP, Emeis K-C, Angel MV, Smith RL, Zeitzschel B (eds) Upwelling in the ocean: modern processes and ancient records. John Wiley & Sons, New York, pp 337–360
Toggweiler JR, Samuels B (1995) Effect of Drake Passage on the global thermohaline circulation. Deep-Sea Res Pt 142:477–500
Townsend DW, Gammen LM, Holligan PM, Campbell DE, Pettigrew NR (1994) Causes and consequences of variability in the timing of the spring phytoplankton blooms. Deep-Sea Res Pt I 41:747–765
Uz BM, Yoder JA, Osychny V (2001) Pumping of nutrients to ocean surface waters by the action of propagating planetary waves. Nature 409:597–600
Veronis G (1973) Model of the world ocean circulation: 1. Wind-driven, two-layer. J Mar Res 31:228–288
Visbeck M, Jones H, Marshall J (1996) Dynamics of isolated convective regions in the ocean. J Phys Oceanogr 26:1721–1734
Voorhis AD, Bruce JG (1982) Small scale surface stirring and frontogenesis in the subtropical convergence of the western North Atlantic. J Mar Res 40 (suppl.) 801–821
Williams RG (2001) Ocean subduction. In: Steele JH, Turekian KK, Thorpe SA (eds) Encyclopedia of ocean sciences. Academic Press, pp 1982–1992
Williams RG, Follows MJ (1998a) The Ekman transfer of nutrients and maintenance of new production over the North Atlantic. Deep-Sea Res Pt I 45:461–489
Williams RG, Follows MJ (1998b) Eddies make ocean deserts bloom. Nature, ‘News and Views’ 394:228–229
Williams RG, Spall MA, Marshall JC (1995) Does Stommel’s mixed-layer ‘Demon’ work? J Phys Oceanogr 25:3089–3102
Williams RG, McLaren A, Follows MJ (2000) Estimating the convective supply of nitrate and implied variability in export production. Global Biogeochem Cy 14:1299–1313
Woods JD (1988) Mesoscale upwelling and primary production. In: Rothschild BJ (ed) Toward a theory of biological physical interactions in the World Ocean. Kluwer, pp 7–38
Wu J, Sunda W, Boyle EA, Karl D (2000) Phosphate depletion in the western North Atlantic Ocean. Science 289:759–762
Wunsch C (1999) The interpretation of short climate records, with comments on the North Atlantic and Southern Oscillations. B Am Meteorol Soc 80:245–255
Wunsch C (2001) Global problems and global observations. In: Siedler G, Church J, Gould J (eds) Ocean circulation and climate. Academic Press, pp 47–56
Wunsch C, Hu D, Grant B (1983) Mass, salt, heat and nutrient fluxes in the South Pacific Ocean. J Phys Oceanogr 13:725–753
Zenk W (2001) Abyssal currents. In: Steele JH, Turekian KK, Thorpe SA (eds) Encyclopedia of ocean sciences. Academic Press, pp 12–27
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2003 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Williams, R.G., Follows, M.J. (2003). Physical Transport of Nutrients and the Maintenance of Biological Production. In: Fasham, M.J.R. (eds) Ocean Biogeochemistry. Global Change — The IGBP Series (closed). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-55844-3_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-55844-3_3
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-642-62691-3
Online ISBN: 978-3-642-55844-3
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive