Abstract
Regulators legislate businesses’ use of claims on product packaging by mostly focusing on textual claims and the extent to which they could potentially mislead consumers. Interpreting textual claims generally requires consumers to engage in extensive and deliberate processing (so-called type 2 processing in dual processing models in social psychology). In real life competitive choice settings, however, businesses preferably make use of colours and other visual elements to successfully attract consumers. In case this approach supports consumers in making healthier food decisions, it can be seen as a form of nudging, as this approach largely appeals to consumers’ reactive, intuitive modes of decision making (i.e., system 1 processing). Nevertheless, visuals may mislead consumers to a larger extent than textual claims in that they overpromise health benefits of consuming the product. In order to effectively regulate health claims in the EU, we claim that regulation has to devote attention to the regulation of pictorial claims. We will first illustrate such a mechanism and its potential for effective nudging on the example of health and nutrition claims in the EU. We will then investigate on the example of the differences between textual and pictorial claims whether the EU health claims regulation is effective in making sure that sales techniques of food companies are being regulated as effective nudging instead of misleading marketing tactics.
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Notes
- 1.
Bremmers et al. 2013, p. 162.
- 2.
See Sect. 11.2.1 below.
- 3.
- 4.
Art. 2 (2) 1 of the Regulation.
- 5.
- 6.
- 7.
Trstenjak and Beysen 2013, pp. 293 et seqq.
- 8.
Unberath and Johnston 2007, p. 1238 “(O)n the whole the Court has been at pains to grant the consumer protection directives a wide scope of application and – crucially- to give its provisions the most interventionist reading.” See particularly with respect to consumer information in foods particularly the judgment in Karl Berger v Freistaat Bayern (C-636/11), and the respective annotation by Purnhagen 2013, pp. 71 et seqq.
- 9.
C-508/12, Vapenik vs. Thurner, para 26.
- 10.
Purnhagen, ‘precautionary principle’, 2015.
- 11.
The recent judgment of the CJEU in Weintor emphasised the importance of interpreting the health claim in the light of fundamental rights, see Deutsches Weintor eg v Land Rheinland-Pfalz (C-544/10), nyr. Weatherill cites this judgment as “a helpful example of the structure and style of the analysis one may anticipate (and hope for)”, see Weatherill, p. 415.
- 12.
For a general account from the perspective of EU food law see also Recital 41 of Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 October 2011 on the provision of food information to consumers, amending Regulations (EC) No 1924/2006 and (EC) No 1925/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council, and repealing Commission Directive 87/250/EEC, Council Directive 90/496/EEC, Commission Directive 1999/10/EC, Directive 2000/13/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council, Commission Directives 2002/67/EC and 2008/5/EC and Commission Regulation (EC) No 608/2004, 2011, L 304/18; for a more thorough assessment see Purnhagen and van Herpen 2014.
- 13.
Recital 3 Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006.
- 14.
Recital 1 Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006.
- 15.
Recital 1 Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006.
- 16.
Bremmers et al. 2013, p. 163.
- 17.
See the EU Register on nutrition and health claims, available at http://ec.europa.eu/nuhclaims/?event=search&CFID=1454821&CFTOKEN=1f19aaa15390e104-E84BF6E3-DCE0-4BDA-C45F181C4D90B0B4&jsessionid=9212c958cba83105db58485a4431625f3b7fTR
- 18.
C-544/10 Deutsches Weintor eg v Land Rheinland-Pfalz, nyr.
- 19.
C-609/12 Ehrmann AG v Zentrale zur Bekämpfung unlauteren Wettbewerbs eV, nyr.
- 20.
C-299/12 Green Swan, nyr.
- 21.
BGH, 26.02.2014 – I ZR 178/12 = NJW-RR 2014, 1129.
- 22.
- 23.
Van Trijp and van der Lans 2007, pp. 305–324.
- 24.
Porter 2014, p. 1752.
- 25.
Nocella and Kennedy 2012, pp. 571–580.
- 26.
Harris 1977, pp. 603–608.
- 27.
Grunert et al. 2011, pp. 269–277
- 28.
Bilman et al. 2012, pp. 912–920.
- 29.
Chandon 2013, pp. 1–6.
- 30.
Kardes et al. 2004, pp. 230–256.
- 31.
Andrews et al. 1998, pp. 62–75.
- 32.
Roe et al. 1999, pp. 89–105.
- 33.
Nisbett and Wilson 1977, pp. 250–256.
- 34.
Chandon, and Wansink 2012, pp. 571–593.
- 35.
- 36.
- 37.
Bushman 1998, pp. 97–101.
- 38.
Cowburn and Stockley 2005, pp. 21–28.
- 39.
Malam et al. 2009.
- 40.
Nocella and Kennedy 2012, pp. 571–580.
- 41.
Van Trijp and Van der Lans 2007, pp. 305–324.
- 42.
Grunert et al. 2010. pp. 261–277.
- 43.
United Nations Regional Information Centre for Western Europe (UNRIC). EU: 75 millions adults lack basic reading skills. Accessed at January 21 2015 at http://www.unric.org/en/literacy/27799-eu-75-million-adults-lack-basic-reading-skills
- 44.
Viswanathan et al. 2009, pp. 135–145.
- 45.
Franck and Purnhagen 2014, p. 337.
- 46.
Steindorff 1996, p. 195.
- 47.
Gut Springenheide and Tusky (C-210/96) [1998] E.C.R. I-4657.
- 48.
Gut Springenheide and Tusky (C-210/96) [1998] E.C.R. I-4657.
- 49.
Opinion of Advocate General Gulmann of 29 September 1993, Case C-315/92 of 2 February 1994, Verband Sozialer Wettbewerb eV v Clinique Laboratoires SNC and Estée Lauder Cosmetics GmbH, 1994, ECR I-317, para 25. See Duivenvoorde for a recent summary and assessment of the judgments on the average consumer models.
- 50.
For a general account from the perspective of EU food law see also Recital 41 of Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 October 2011 on the provision of food information to consumers, amending Regulations (EC) No 1924/2006 and (EC) No 1925/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council, and repealing Commission Directive 87/250/EEC, Council Directive 90/496/EEC, Commission Directive 1999/10/EC, Directive 2000/13/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council, Commission Directives 2002/67/EC and 2008/5/EC and Commission Regulation (EC) No 608/2004, 2011, L 304/18; for a more thorough assessment see Purnhagen and van Herpen (2014).
- 51.
- 52.
- 53.
Purnhagen and van Herpen 2014.
- 54.
Williams 2005, pp. 256–264.
- 55.
- 56.
Grunert et al. 2010, pp. 177–189.
- 57.
Raynor et al. 2001, pp. 24–31.
- 58.
Grunert and Wills 2007, pp. 196–201.
- 59.
Vyth et al. 2010, pp. 1882–1889.
- 60.
Schor et al. 2010, pp. 22–32.
- 61.
- 62.
- 63.
- 64.
Underwood and Klein 2002, pp. 58–68.
- 65.
Pieters and Warlop 1999, pp. 1–16.
- 66.
Childers et al. 1985, pp. 125–134.
- 67.
- 68.
- 69.
Warlop et al. 2005, pp. 27–44.
- 70.
van Herpen and Pieters 2007, pp. 77–88.
- 71.
- 72.
Labrecque and Milne 2013, pp. 165–176.
- 73.
Scott 1994, pp. 252–273.
- 74.
Gardner and Houston 1986, pp. 64–78.
- 75.
Scott and Vargas 2007, pp. 341–356.
- 76.
Scott 1994, pp. 252–273.
- 77.
Carillo et al. 2012, pp. 209–216.
- 78.
Bone and France 2001, pp. 467–489.
- 79.
Schuldt 2013, pp. 814–821.
- 80.
Scott and Vargas 2007, pp. 341–356
- 81.
Recital 18 UCPD.
- 82.
Recital 1 Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006.
- 83.
Rott 2015, pp. 163–167; Sibony pp. 71–107.
- 84.
Leathwood, Richardson, Strater, Todd, and Van Trijp, pp. 474–484.; Grunert, Scholderer, and Rogeaux, pp. 269–277.
- 85.
Scott 1994, pp 252–273.
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Acknowledgements
We are grateful for the comments we received in the context of the Lucerne conference. We would also like to thank Harry Bremmers for extensive comments on our paper. Mistakes are our own.
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Purnhagen, K., van Herpen, E., van Kleef, E. (2016). The Potential Use of Visual Packaging Elements as Nudges. In: Mathis, K., Tor, A. (eds) Nudging - Possibilities, Limitations and Applications in European Law and Economics. Economic Analysis of Law in European Legal Scholarship, vol 3. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-29562-6_11
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