Abstract
Ras-dependent signaling is an important regulator of cell cycle progression, proliferation, senescence, and apoptosis. Several of the downstream effectors of Ras play dual roles in each of these processes. Under one set of conditions, they promote cell cycle progression and proliferation; yet, in a different paradigm, they drive cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. Furthermore, there is cross talk between certain downstream effectors of Ras including the PI3K–AKT and Raf–MEK–ERK pathways. Here we describe a series of experiments used to dissect the effect of different Ras-dependent signaling pathways on cell cycle progression, proliferation, senescence, and apoptosis. Furthermore, we highlight the importance of consistent growth conditions of cells in culture when studying Ras-dependent signaling as we show that the activation of downstream effectors of Ras changes with the confluency at which the cells are grown.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Malumbres M, Barbacid M (2003) RAS oncogenes: the first 30 years. Nat Rev Cancer 3:459–465
Mebratu Y, Tesfaigzi Y (2009) How ERK1/2 activation controls cell proliferation and cell death: is subcellular localization the answer? Cell Cycle 8(8):1168–1175
Kim JK, Diehl JA (2009) Nuclear cyclin D1: an oncogenic driver in human cancer. J Cell Physiol 220(2):292–296
Campisi J, d’Adda di Fagagna F (2007) Cellular senescence: when bad things happen to good cells. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 8:729–740
Tokunaga E, Oki E, Egashira A, Sadanaga N, Morita M, Kakeji Y, Maehara Y (2008) Deregulation of the Akt pathway in human cancer. Curr Cancer Drug Targets 8(1):27–36
Chien Y, White MA (2003) RAL GTPases are linchpin modulators of human tumour-cell proliferation and survival. EMBO Rep 4(8):800–806
Lim KH, O’Hayer K, Adam SJ, Kendall SD, Campbell PM, Der CJ, Counter CM (2006) Divergent roles for RalA and RalB in malignant growth of human pancreatic carcinoma cells. Curr Biol 16:2385–2394
Gille H, Sharrocks AD, Shaw PE (1992) Phosphorylation of transcription factor p62TCF by MAP kinase stimulates ternary complex formation at c-fos promoter. Nature 358:414–417
Lenormand P, Sardet C, Pages G, L’Allemain G, Brunet A, Pouyssegur J (1993) Growth factors induce nuclear translocation of MAP kinases (p42mapk and p44mapk) but not of their activator MAP kinase kinase (p45mapkk) in fibroblasts. J Cell Biol 122(5):1079–1088
Chen RH, Sarnecki C, Blenis J (1992) Nuclear localization and regulation of erk- and rsk-encoded protein kinases. Mol Cell Biol 12(3):915–927
Zhao J, Yuan X, Frodin M, Grummt I (2003) ERK-dependent phosphorylation of the transcription initiation factor TIF-IA is required for RNA polymerase I transcription and cell growth. Mol Cell 11:405–413
Finnberg N, El-Deiry WS (2004) Activating FOXO3a, NF-kappaB and p53 by targeting IKKs: an effective multi-faceted targeting of the tumor-cell phenotype? Cancer Biol Ther 3(7):614–616
Burgering BM, Kops GJ (2002) Cell cycle and death control: long live Forkheads. Trends Biochem Sci 27(7):352–360
Dijkers PF, Medema RH, Pals C, Banerji L, Thomas NS, Lam EW, Burgering BM, Raaijmakers JA, Lammers JW, Koenderman L, Coffer PJ (2000) Forkhead transcription factor FKHR-L1 modulates cytokine-dependent transcription regulation of p27KIP1. Mol Cell Biol 20(24):9138–9148
Chen CH, Wang WJ, Kuo JC, Tsai HC, Lin JR, Chang ZF, Chen RH (2005) Bidirectional signals transduced by DAPK-ERK interaction promote the apoptotic effect of DAPK. EMBO J 24(2):294–304
Schmidt M, Fernandez de Mattos S, van der Horst A, Klompmaker R, Kops GJ, Lam EW, Burgering BM, Medema RH (2002) Cell cycle inhibition by FoxO forkhead transcription factors involves downregulation of cyclin D. Mol Cell Biol 22(22):7842–7852
Burgering BM, Medema RH (2003) Decisions on life and death: FOXO Forkhead transcription factors are in command when PKB/Akt is off duty. J Leukoc Biol 73(6):689–701
Medema RH, Kops GJ, Bos JL, Burgering BM (2000) AFX-like Forkhead transcription factors mediate cell-cycle regulation by Ras and PKB through p27kip1. Nature 404:782–787
Alt JR, Cleveland JL, Hannink M, Diehl JA (2000) Phosphorylation-dependent regulation of cyclin D1 nuclear export and cyclin D1-dependent cellular transformation. Genes Dev 14:3102–3114
Diehl JA, Cheng M, Roussel MF, Sherr CJ (1998) Glycogen synthase kinase-3B regulates cyclin D1 proteolysis and subcellular localization. Genes Dev 12:3499–3511
Biggs WH 3rd, Meisenhelder J, Hunter T, Cavenee WK, Arden KC (1999) Protein kinase B/Akt-mediated phosphorylation promotes nuclear exclusion of the winged heliz transcription factor FKHR1. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 96:7421–7426
Brunet A, Bonni A, Zigmond MJ, Lin MZ, Juo P, Hu LS, Anderson MJ, Arden KC, Blenis J, Greenberg ME (1999) Akt promotes cell survival by phosphorylating and inhibiting a Forkhead transcription factor. Cell 96:857–868
Rena G, Guo S, Cichy SC, Unterman TG, Cohen P (1999) Phosphorylation of the transcription factor forkhead family member FKHR by protein kinase B. J Biol Chem 274(24):17179–17183
Romashkova JA, Makarov SS (1999) NF-kB is a target of AKT in anti-apoptotic PDGF signaling. Nature 401:86–90
Du K, Montminy M (1998) CREB is a regulatory target for the protein kinase Akt/PKB.J Biol Chem 273(49):32377–32379
Campbell PM, Singh A, Williams FJ, Frantz K, Ulku AS, Kelley GG, Der CJ (2006) Genetic and pharmacologic dissection of Ras effector utilization in oncogenesis. Methods Enzymol 407:195–216
Albanese C, Johnson J, Watanabe G, Eklund N, Vu D, Arnold A, Pestell RG (1995) Transforming p21ras mutants and c-Ets-2 activate the cyclin D1 promoter through distinguishable regions. J Biol Chem 270(40):23589–23597
Vaque JP, Fernandez-Garcia B, Garcia-Sanz P, Ferrandiz N, Bretones G, Calvo F, Crespo P, Marin MC, Leon J (2008) c-Myc inhibits Ras-mediated differentiation of pheochromocytoma cells by blocking c-Jun up-regulation. Mol Cancer Res 6(2):325–339
Dimri GP, Lee X, Basile G, Acosta M, Scott G, Roskelley C, Medrano EE, Linskens M, Rubelj I, Pereira-Smith O et al (1995) A biomarker that identifies senescent human cells in culture and in aging skin in vivo. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 92:9363–9367
Serrano M, Lin AW, McCurrach ME, Beach D, Lowe SW (1997) Oncogenic ras provokes premature cell senescence associated with accumulation of p53 and p16INK4a. Cell 88:593–602
Benanti JA, Galloway DA (2004) Normal human fibroblasts are resistant to RAS-induced senescence. Mol Cell Biol 24(7):2842–2852
Zhuang D et al (2008) C-MYC overexpression is required for continuous suppression of oncogene-induced senescence in melanoma cells. Oncogene 27:6623–6634
Frisch SM, Francis H (1994) Disruption of epithelial cell-matrix interactions induces apoptosis. J Cell Biol 124(4):619–626
Re F, Zanetti A, Sironi M, Polentarutti N, Lanfrancone L, Dejana E, Colotta F (1994) Inhibition of anchorage-dependent cell spreading triggers apoptosis in cultured human endothelial cells. J Cell Biol 127(2):537–546
McFall A, Ulku A, Lambert QT, Kusa A, Rogers-Graham K, Der CJ (2001) Oncogenic Ras blocks anoikis by activation of a novel effector pathway independent of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase. Mol Cell Biol 21(16):5488–5499
Ma Z, Liu Z, Wu RF, Terada LS (2010) p66Shc restrains Ras hyperactivation and suppresses metastatic behavior. Oncogene 29:5559–5567
Yu M, Stott S, Toner M, Maheswaran S, Haber DA (2011) Circulating tumor cells: approaches to isolation and characterization. J Cell Biol 192(3):373–382
Taylor SJ, Shalloway D (1996) Cell cycle-dependent activation of Ras. Curr Biol 6(12):1621–1627
Campbell PM, Groehler AL, Lee KM, Ouellette MM, Khazak V, Der CJ (2007) K-Ras promotes growth transformation and invasion of immortalized human pancreatic cells by Raf and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase signaling. Cancer Res 67(5):2098–2106
Ma Z, Myers DP, Wu RF, Nwariaku FE, Terada LS (2007) p66Shc mediates anoikis through RhoA. J Cell Biol 179(1):23–31
Noonan EJ, Place RF, Basak S, Pookot D, Li LC (2010) miR-449a causes Rb-dependent cell cycle arrest and senescence in prostate cancer cells. Oncotarget 1(5):349–358
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Channing J. Der for the kind gift of the GTPase-binding domain pGEX constructs used in the pulldown assays.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2014 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this protocol
Cite this protocol
Stout, M.C., Asiimwe, E., Birkenstamm, J.R., Kim, S.Y., Campbell, P.M. (2014). Analyzing Ras-Associated Cell Proliferation Signaling. In: Noguchi, E., Gadaleta, M. (eds) Cell Cycle Control. Methods in Molecular Biology, vol 1170. Humana Press, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-0888-2_21
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-0888-2_21
Published:
Publisher Name: Humana Press, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4939-0887-5
Online ISBN: 978-1-4939-0888-2
eBook Packages: Springer Protocols