Abstract
Carnivores exhibit a wide range of locomotor behaviors. However, an animal’s morphology limits its range of movements and therefore provides a constraint to certain locomotor activities. For instance, the body proportions and morphology of the sea otter (Enhydra lutris) make it an excellent swimmer, whereas it has difficulty moving on land. Likewise, the arboreal specializations of the ringtail (Bassariscus astutus), which allow it to perform complex acrobatic movements, restrict its abilities for other forms of locomotion such as running or digging. Some carnivores improve the effect of their locomotor skills with behavioral modifications; for example, the group hunting behavior of the African lion (Panthera leo) and the gray wolf (Canis lupus) allows them to catch prey that they would not be able to catch as individuals (Mech 1970; Schaller 1972). Therefore, from an evolutionary viewpoint, one must recognize that behavioral adaptations may be as important as morphological adaptations. However, although the behavior of many carnivores is poorly known, it is possible to infer a great deal from their morphological adaptations and to use this information in a predictive way to understand their role in particular ecosystems.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Albignac, R. 1970. Notes ethologiques sur quelques carnivores malagaches: le Cryptoprocta ferox (Bennett). Terre Vie 24:395–402.
Alexander, R. McN. 1984. Walking and running. Amer. Sci. 72:348–354.
Alexander, R. McN., and Jayes, A. S. 1981. Estimates of the bending moments exerted by the lumbar and abdominal muscles of some mammals. J. Zool. (Lond.) 194:291–303.
Bisaillon, A., Piérard, J., and Larivière, N. 1976. Le segment cervical des carnivores (Mammalia: Carnivora) adaptés à la vie aquatique. Canadian J. Zool. 54:431–436.
Brown, J. C. and Yalden, D. W. 1973. The description of mammals—2: Limbs and locomotion of terrestrial mammals. Mamm. Rev. 3:107–134.
Cartmill, M. 1974. Pads and claws in arboreal locomotion. In F. A. Jenkins, Jr., ed. Primate Locomotion, pp. 45–83. New York: Academic Press.
Cartmill, M. 1979. The volar skin of primates: Its frictional characteristics and their functional significance. Amer. J. Phys. Anthropol. 50:497–510.
Cartmill, M. 1985. Climbing. In: M. Hildebrand, D. M. Bramble, K. F. Liem & D. B. Wake, eds. Functional Vertebrate Morphology, pp. 73–88. Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press.
Dagg, A. I. 1973. Gaits in mammals. Mamm. Rev. 3:135–154.
Dagg, A. I. 1976. Running, Walking and Jumping: The Science of Locomotion. London: Taylor and Francis.
Dagg, A. I. 1979. The walk of the large quadrupedal mammals. Candian J. Zool. 57:1157–1163.
Dagg, A. I., and Windsor, D. E. 1972. Swimming in northern terrestrial mammals. Canadian J. Zool. 50:117–130.
Davis, D. D. 1964. The giant panda: A morphological study of evolutionary mechanisms. Field. Zool. Mem. 31:1–339.
DeMaster, D. P., and Stirling, I. 1981. Ursus maritimus. Mammalian Species no. 145. Lawrence, Kans.: American Society of Mammalogists.
Dunstone, N. 1979. Swimming and diving behavior of the mink. Carnivore 2:56–61.
Ewer, R. F. 1973. The Carnivores. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Univ. Press.
Fleagle, J. G., and Mittermeier, R. A. 1980. Locomotor behavior, body size and comparative ecology of seven Surinam monkeys. Amer. J. Phys. Anthrop. 52:301–314.
Gambaryan, P. P. 1974. How Mammals Run: Anatomical Adaptations. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Gilbert, B. M. 1973. Mammalian Osteo-Archaeology, Columbia: Missouri Archaeological Society.
Gittleman J. L. 1985. Carnivore body size: Ecological and taxonomic correlates. Oecologica 67:540–554.
Gonyea, W. J. 1978. Functional implications of felid forelimb anatomy. Acta Anatomica 102:111–121.
Goslow, G. E., and Van de Graaff, K. 1982. Hindlimb joint angle changes and action of the primary ankle extensor muscles during posture and locomotion in the striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis). J. Zool. (Lond.) 1982:405–419.
Gray, J. 1968. Animal Locomotion. New York: W. W. Norton.
Gregory, W. K. 1912. Notes on the principles of quadrupedal locomotion and on the mechanism of the limbs in hoofed animals. Ann. New York Acad. Sci. 22:267–294.
Harris, C. J. 1968. Otters: A Study of the Recent Lutrinae. London: Wiedenfeld and Nicolson.
Hildebrand, M. 1954. Comparative morphology of the body skeleton in recent Canidae. Univ. California Publ. Zool. 52:399–470.
Hildebrand, M. 1959. Motions of the running cheetah and horse. J. Mamm. 40:481–495.
Hildebrand, M. 1961. Further studies on locomotion of the cheetah. J. Mamm. 42:84–91.
Hildebrand, M. 1976. Analysis of tetrapod gaits: General considerations and symmetrical gaits. In: R. M. Herman, S. Grillner, P. S. G. Stein, & D. G. Stuart, eds. Neural Control of Locomotion, pp. 203-236. New York: Plenum.
Hildebrand, M. 1982. Analysis of Vertebrate Structure. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Hildebrand, M. 1985a. Digging of quadrupeds. In: M. Hildebrand, D. M. Bramble, K. F. Liem & D. B. Wake, eds. Functional Vertebrate Morphology, pp. 89–109. Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press.
Hildebrand, M. 1985b. Walking and running. In: M. Hildebrand, D. M. Bramble, K. F. Liem & D. B. Wake, eds. Functional Vertebrate Morphology, pp. 38–57. Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press.
Howard, L. D. 1973a. Muscular anatomy of the forelimb of the sea otter (Enhydra lutris). Proc. California Acad. Sci. 39:411–500.
Howard, L. D. 1973b. Muscular anatomy of the hind limb of the otter Enhydra lutris. Proc. California Acad. Sci. 40:335–416.
Howell, A. B. 1930. Aquatic Mammals: Their Adaptations to Life in the Water. Springfield, Ill.: Charles C Thomas.
Howell, A. B. 1944. Speed in Animals. New York: Haffner.
Hurrell, H. G. 1968. Pine martens. Forestry Commission: Forest Record No. 64. London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office. 23 pp.
Hurst, R. J., Leonard, M. L., Beckerton, P., and Oritsland, N. A. 1982. Polar bear locomotion: Body temperature and energetic cost. Canadian J. Zool. 60:222–228.
Jenkins, F. A. 1971. Limb posture and locomotion in the Virginia opossum (Didelphis marsupialis) and in other non-cursorial mammals. J. Zool. (Lond.) 165:303–315.
Jenkins, F. A. 1973. The functional anatomy and evolution of the mammalian humeroulnar articulation. Amer. J. Anat. 137:281–298.
Jenkins, F. A. 1974. The movement of the shoulder in claviculate and aclaviculate mammals. J. Morphol. 144:71–84.
Jenkins, F. A., and Camazine, S. M. 1977. Hip structure and locomotion in ambulatory and cursorial carnivores. J. Zool. (Lond.) 181:351–370.
Jenkins, F. A., and McClearn, D. 1984. Mechanisms of hind foot reversal in climbing mammals. J. Morphol. 182:197–219.
Kenyon, K. W. 1975. The Sea Otter in the Eastern Pacific Ocean. New York: Dover.
Kingdon, J. 1977. East African Mammals: An Atlas of Evolution in Africa, vol. 3A: Carnivores. New York: Academic Press.
Kirkpatrick, C. M., Stullken, D. E., and Jones, R. D. 1955. Notes on captive sea otters. Arctic 8:46–59.
Lampe, R. S. 1976. Aspects of the predatory strategy of the North American badger, Taxidea taxus. Ph.D. dissert., Univ. Minnesota Minneapolis. 103 pp.
Leach, D., and Dagg, A. I. 1976. The morphology of the femur in marten and fisher. Canadian J. Zool. 54:559–565.
Leach, D., and deKleer, V. S. 1978. The descriptive and comparative postcranial osteology of marten and fisher: The axial skeleton. Canadian J. Zool. 56:1180–1191.
Liers, E. E. 1951. Notes on the river otter (Lutra canadensis). J. Mamm. 32:1–9.
Lighthill, M. J. 1969. Hydrodynamics of aquatic animal propulsion. Ann. Rev. Fluid Mech. 1:413–446.
Long, C. A., and Killingley, C. A. 1983. The Badgers of the World. Springfield, Ill.: Charles C Thomas.
Lynch, C. D. 1980. Ecology of the suricate, Suricata suricata, and yellow mongoose, Cynictis penicillata, with special reference to their reproduction. Memoirs of the National Museum Bloemfontein. 14:1–145.
Mech, L. D. 1970. The Wolf. Garden City, N.Y.: Natural History Press.
Murie, O. J. 1940. Notes on the sea otter. J. Mamm: 21:119–131.
Muybridge, E. 1887 (1957 rpt.). Animals in Motion. New York: Dover. 74 pp. and 183 plates.
Neal, E. 1948. The Badger. London: Collins.
Nowak, R. M., and Paradiso, J. L. 1983. Walker’s Mammals of the World, 4th ed, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.
Ondrias, J. C. 1960. Secondary sexual variation and body skeletal proportions in European Mustelidae. Arkiv för Zoologi. 12:577–583.
Ondrias, J. C. 1961. Comparative osteological investigations on the front limbs of European Mustelidae. Arkiv för Zoologi. 13:311–320.
Perry, M. L. 1939. Notes on a captive badger. Murrelet 20:49–53.
Peterson, R. L. 1966. The Mammals of Eastern Canada. Toronto: Oxford Univ. Press.
Quaife, L. R. 1978. The form and function of the North American badger (Taxidea taxus) in relation to its fossorial way of life. M.Sc. thesis, Univ. of Calgary. 197 pp.
Roberts, M. S., and Gittleman, J. L. 1984. Mammalian Species no. 222. Ailurus fulgens. Lawrence, Kans.: American Society of Mammalogists.
Schaller, G. B. 1972. The Serengeti Lion: A Study of Predator-Prey Relationships. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press.
Severinghaus, C. W., and Tanck, J. E. 1947. Speed and gait of an otter. J. Mamm. 29:71.
Smith, J. M., and Savage, R. J. G. 1956. Some locomotory adaptations in mammals. J. Linn. Soc. (Zoology). 42:603–622.
Sokolov, A. S., and Sokolov, I. I. 1970. Some special features of the locomotory organs of the river and sea otters associated with their mode of life. Byulleten Moskovskogo obshchestva ispytatelei prirody, Otdel biologicheskii 75:5–17.
Sokolov, I. I., and Sokolov, A. S. 1971. Some features of the locomotory organs of Martes martes L. associated with its mode of life. Byulleten Moskovskogo obshchestva ispytatelei prirody, Otdel biologicheskii 76:40–51.
Tarasoff, F. J. 1972. Comparative aspects of the hindlimbs of the river otter, sea otter, and harp seal. In: R. J. Harrison, ed. Functional Anatomy of Mammals, pp. 333–359. New York: Academic Press.
Tarasoff, F. J., Bisaillon, A., Piérard, J., and Whitt, A. P. 1972. Locomotory patterns and external morphology of the river otter, sea otter, and harp seal (Mammalia). Canadian J. Zool. 50:915–927.
Taylor, M. E. 1970. Locomotion in some East African viverrids. J. Mamm. 51:42–51.
Taylor, M. E. 1971. The comparative anatomy of the limbs of East African Viverridae (Carnivora) and its relationship with locomotion. Ph.D. dissert., Univ. of Toronto. 233 pp.
Taylor, M. E. 1974. The functional anatomy of the forelimb of some African Viverridae (Carnivora). J. Morphol. 143:307–336.
Taylor, M. E. 1976. The functional anatomy of the hindlimb of some African Viverridae (Carnivora). J. Morphol. 148:227–254.
Taylor, W. P. 1914. The problem of aquatic adaptation in the Carnivora, as illustrated in the osteology and evolution of the sea otter. Univ. California Publ. Geol. 7:465–495.
Trapp, G. R. 1972. Some anatomical and behavioral adaptations of ringtails, Bassariscus astutus. J. Mamm. 53:549–557.
van Valkenburgh, B. 1985. Locomotory diversity within past and present guilds of large predatory mammals. Paleobiology 11:406–428.
van Valkenburgh, B. 1986. Skeletal indicators of locomotory behavior in living and extinct carnivores. J. Vert. Paleobiology 11:406–428.
Wemmer, C. and Watling, D. 1986. Ecology and status of the Sulawesi Palm Civet Macrogalidia musschenbroekii Schlegel. Biol. Conserv. 35:1–17.
Williams, T. M. 1983. Locomotion in the north American mink, a semi-aquatic mammal. II. The effect of an elongate body on running energetics and gait patterns. J. Exp. Biol. 105:283–295.
Wingerson, L. 1983. The lion, the spring and the pendulum. New Scientist 97:237–239.
Wolffson, D. M. 1950. Scapula shape and muscle function, with special reference to the vertebral border. Amer. J. Phys. Anthropol. 8:331–338.
Yalden, D. W. 1970. The functional morphology of the carpal bones in carnivores. Acta Anat. 77:481–500.
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1989 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Taylor, M.E. (1989). Locomotor Adaptations by Carnivores. In: Gittleman, J.L. (eds) Carnivore Behavior, Ecology, and Evolution. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-4716-4_15
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-4716-4_15
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-0-412-34360-5
Online ISBN: 978-1-4757-4716-4
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive