Skip to main content

The Transition to Independence and Postfledging Parental Care in Seabirds

  • Chapter
Behavior of Marine Animals

Abstract

Behavior is one component of adaptation to the environment; thus examinations of particular kinds of behavior provide insights into the evolution of species. Comparing behaviors among animals provides a framework for generating ideas about how animals adapt. In birds, parental care involves considerable time and energy, and thus provides a good opportunity to examine the diversity, mechanisms, and adaptative significance of behavior. Parental care refers to all behaviors that contribute to the maintenance and survival of their young. Most references to parental care in the literature are limited to the early phase of care of the nestlings, whereas a few studies examine care up until “fledging.” In its broadest sense, parental care includes any behavior that contributes to the survival of the young once they have departed from the nest and are partially independent of their parents.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Allan, R. G., 1962, The Madeiran Storm Petrel Oceandroma castro, Ibis 1036: 274–296.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ansingh, F. H., Kuelen, H. J., Van der Werf, P. S., and Voous, K. H., 1960, The breeding of the Cayenna or Yellow-billed Sandwich Tern in Curacao in 1958, Ardea 48: 51–65.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ashmole, M. J., and Ashmole, N. P., 1968, The use of food samples from sea birds in the study of seasonal variation in the surface fauna of tropical oceanic areas, Pac. Sci 22: 1–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ashmole, N. P., 1962, The Black Noody Anous tenuirostris on Ascension Island. Part I. General biology, Ibis 103b: 235–273.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ashmole, N. P., 1963, The biology of the Wideawake or Sooty Tern Sterna fuscata on Ascension Island, Ibis 1036: 197–364.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ashmole, N. P., 1968, Breeding and molt in the White Tern (Gygis alba) on Christmas Island, Pacific Ocean, Condor 70: 35–55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ashmole, N. P., 1971, Seabird ecology and the marine environment, in: Avian Biology ( D. S. Farner and J. R. King, eds.), Vol. 1, pp. 224–286, Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ashmole, N. P., and Tovar S. H., 1968, Prolonged parental care in Royal Terns and other birds, Auk 85: 90–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Austin, O. L., Jr., 1961, Birds of the World, Golden Press, New York, N.Y.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baggerman, G., Baerends, G. P., Heikens, H. S., and Mook, J. H., 1956, Observations on the behavior of the Black Tern, Chlidonias n. niger (L.), in the breeding area, Ardea 44: 1–71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barash, D. P., Donovan, P., and Myrick, R., 1975, Clam dropping behavior of the Glaucous-winged Gull (Larus glaucescens), Auk 87: 60–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, J. R., and Brown, D. W., 1971, The breeding biology of the Black-bellied Storm-petrel Fregatta tropica, Ibis 113: 73–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bédard, J., 1969, Adaptive radiation in Alcidae, Ibis 111: 189–197.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bent, A. C., 1919, Life Histories of North American Diving Birds, U. S. National Museum Bulletin, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bent, A. C., 1921, Life Histories of North American Gulls and Terns, U.S. National Museum Bulletin, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bent, A. C., 1922, Life Histories of North American Petrels, Pelicans and Their Allies, U.S. National Museum Bulletin, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bergman, G., 1956, Beteendestudier över ungar av skrantarna (Hydro-progne tschegrava), Var Fagelvarld 15: 223–245.

    Google Scholar 

  • Birkhead, T. R., 1977, Adaptive significance of the nesting period of Guillemots Uria aalge, Ibis 119: 544–549.

    Google Scholar 

  • Birkhead, T. R., 1978, Behavioral adaptations to high density nesting in the Common Guillemot Uria aalge, Anim. Behay. 36: 321–331.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boersma, P. D., 1977, An ecological and behavioral study of the Galapagos Penguins, Living Bird 15: 43–93.

    Google Scholar 

  • Belopol’skii, L. 0., 1957, Ecology of Sea Colony Birds of the Barents Sea, Israel Program for Scientific Translation, Jerusalem.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buckley, F. G., and Buckley, P., 1972, The breeding ecology of Royal Terns Sterna (Thalasseus) maxima maxima, Ibis 114: 344–359.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buckley, F. G., and Buckley, P., 1974, Comparative feeding ecology of wintering adult and juvenile Royal Terns (Ayes: Laridae, Sterninae), Ecology 55: 1033–1063.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burger, J., 1972, Dispersal and post-fledging survival of Franklin’s Gull, Bird-Banding. 43: 267–275.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burger, J., 1974, Breeding adaptations of Franklin’s Gull (Larus pipixcan) to a marsh habitat, Anim. Behay. 22: 521–567.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burger, J., 1978, Competition between Cattle Egrets and native North American herons, egrets, and ibises, Condor 80: 15–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burger, J., 1979, Herring Gull versus Laughing Gull: Competition and predation, Condor 81: 1269–1277.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burger, J., in press, On becoming independent in Herring Gulls: Parent-young conflict, Am. Nat. Burger, J., and Lesser, F., 1978, Selection of colony sites and nest sites by Common Terns Sterna hirundo in Ocean County, New Jersey, Ibis 120:443–449.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burger, J., and Shisler, J., 1978, Nest site selection and competitive interactions of Herring and Laughing Gulls in New Jersey, Auk 95: 252–266.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burger, J., Miller, L., and Hahn, D.C., 1978, Behavior and sex roles of nesting Anhingas at San Blas, Mexico, Wilson Bull. 90: 359–375.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burke, V. E. M., and Brown, L. J., 1970, Observations on the breeding of the Pink-backed Pelican Pelecanus rufescens, Ibis 112: 499–512.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, W. Y., 1975, Parental feeding of young Sooty Terns [Sterna fuscata (L)] and Brown Noddies [Anous stolidus (L)] in Hawaii, J. Anim. Ecol. 44: 731–742.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, W. Y., 1976, Growth and fledging age of Sooty Tern chicks, Auk 93: 179–183.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carrick, R., Keith, K., and Gwynn, A. M., 1960, Fact and fiction on the breeding of the Wandering Albatross, Nature (London) 185: 112–114.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coulson, J. C., and White, E., 1958, Observations on the breeding of the Kittiwake, Bird Study 5: 74–83.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cramp. S., and Simmons, K. E. L., 1977, Handbook of the Birds of Europe, The Middle East and North Africa. Vol. I. Ostrich to Ducks, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cromwell, T., 1953, Circulation in a meridional plan in the central equatorial Pacific, J. Mar. Res. 12: 196–213.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cullen, J. M., and Ashmole, N. P., 1963, The Black Noddy Anous tenuirostris on Ascension Island. Part 2. Behaviour, Ibis 103b: 423–457.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, P., 1947, The breeding of the Storm Petrel, Br. Birds 50: 371–384.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, J. W. F., 1975, Specialization in feeding location by Herring Gulls, J. Anim. Ecol. 44: 795–804.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dement’ev, G. P., Gladkov, N. A., and Spangenberg, E. P., 1951, Ptitsy Sovetskogo Soyuza, Moskua [Birds of the Soviet Union], Israel Program of Scientific Translation, Jerusalem, transl.: 1969 ).

    Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, A. W., 1971, The ecology of seabirds breeding at Aldabra Atoll, Indian Ocean, Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Aberdeen University, Scotland.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, A. W., 1973, Notes on the breeding biology and behavior of Magnificent Frigatebird, Condor 75: 200–209.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, A. W., 1975, Biology and behavior of frigatebirds Fregale spp. on Aldabra Atoll, Ibis 117: 302–323.

    Google Scholar 

  • Din, H. A., and Eltringham, S. K., 1974, Breeding of the Pink-backed Pelican Pelecanus rufescens in Rwenzori National Park, Uganda, Ibis 116: 477–493.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dorward, D. F., 1962a, Comparative biology of the White Booby and the Brown Booby Sula spp. at Ascension, Ibis 103b: 174–220.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dorward, D. F., 1962b, Behavior of boobies Sula spp., Ibis 103: 221–234.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dorward, D. F., 1963, The Fairy Tern Gygis alba on Ascension Island, Ibis 1036: 365–378.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dorward, D. F., and Ashmole, N. P., 1963, Notes on the biology of the Brown Noddy Anous stolidus on Ascension Island, Ibis 103b: 447–457.

    Google Scholar 

  • Drent, R. H., and Viguet, C. J. G., 1961, A catalogue of British Columbia seabird colonies. Occ. Pap. B.C. Prov. Mus. 12: 173 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Drent, R. H., 1965, Breeding biology of the Pigeon Guillemot, Cepphus columba, Ardea 93: 99–159.

    Google Scholar 

  • Drent, R. H., VanTets, G. F., Tompa, F., and Vermeer, K., 1964, The breeding birds of Mandarte Island, British Columbia, Can. Field-Nat. 78: 208–263.

    Google Scholar 

  • Drury, W. H., Jr., and Smith, W. J., 1968, Defense of feeding areas by adult Herring Gulls and intrusion by young, Evolution 22: 193–201.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunn, E. K., 1972, Effect of age on the fishing ability of Sandwich Terns Sterna sandvicensis, Ibis 114: 360–366.

    Google Scholar 

  • Erwin, R. M., 1977a, Black Skimmer breeding ecology and behavior, Auk 94: 709–717.

    Google Scholar 

  • Erwin, R. M., 1977b, Foraging and breeding adaptations to different food regimes in three seabirds: The Common Tern, Sterna hirundo, Royal Tern Sterna maxima, and Black Skimmer, Rynchops niger, Ecology 58: 389–397.

    Google Scholar 

  • Escalante, R., 1968, Notes on the Royal Tern in Uruguay, Condor 70: 243–247.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feare, C. J., 1975, Post-fledging parental care in Crested and Sooty Terns, Condor 77: 368–370.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feare, C. J., 1976, The breeding of the Sooty Tern Sterna fuscata in the Seychelles and the effects of experimental removal of eggs, J. Zool. Lond. 179: 317–360.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, J., and Lockley, R. M., 1954, Sea-birds, Houghton-Mifflin, Boston.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fleet, R. R., 1974, The Red-tailed Tropicbird on Kare Atoll, AOU Monogr. 16: 1–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fordham, R. A., 1964, Breeding biology of the Southern Black-backed Gull: 1: Pre-egg stage and egg stage, and 2: Chick stage, Notornis 11: 3–34, 110–126.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fordham, R. A., 1968, Dispersion and dispersal of Domincan Gull in Wellington, New Zealand, Proc. N.Z. Ecol. Soc. 15: 40–50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gison, J. D., 1963, Third report of the New South Wales Albatross Study Group (1962) summarizing activities to date, Emu 63: 215–223.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gibson-Hill, G. A., 1949, Notes on the nesting habits of seven representative tropical sea birds, J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 48: 214–235.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glauert, L., 1946, The Little Shearwater’s year, Emu 46: 187–192.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenwood, J., 1964, The fledging of the Guillemot Uria aalge with notes on the Razorbill Alca torda, Ibis 106: 469–481.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall, E. R., 1925, Pelicans versus fishes in Pyramid Lake, Condor 27: 147–160.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harriott, M. C.. 1970, Breeding behavior of the Anhinga, Fl. Nat. 43: 138–142.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris, M. P., 1965, The food of some Larus Gulls, Ibis 107: 43–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris, M. P., 1966, Breeding biology of the Manx Shearwater Puffinus puffinus, Ibis 108: 17–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris, M. P., 1969, Food as a factor controlling the breeding of Puffinus lherminieri, Ibis 111: 139–156.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris, M. P., 1970a, The biology on endangered species, the Dark-rumped Petrel (Pterodroma phaeopygia), in the Galapagos Islands, Condor 72: 76–84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris, M. P., 1970b, Breeding ecology of the Swallow-tailed Gull, Creagrus furcatus, Auk 87: 215–243.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris, M. P., 1973, The biology of the Waved Albatross Diomedea irrorata of Hood Island, Galapagos, Ibis 115: 483–510.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris, M. P., 1978, Supplementary feeding of young puffins, Fratercula arctica, J. Anim. Ecol. 47: 15–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haycock, K. A., and Threlfall, W., 1975, The breeding biology of the Herring Gull in Newfoundland, Auk 92: 678–697.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hofslund, P. B., 1959, Fall migration of Herring Gulls from Knife Island, Minnesota, Bird-Banding 30: 104–114.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunt, G. L., Jr., and Hunt, M. W., 1973, Habitat partitioning by foraging Gulls in Maine and Northwestern Europe, Auk 90: 827–839.

    Google Scholar 

  • Imber, M. J., 1976, The breeding biology of the Grey-faced Petrel Pterodroma macroptera gouldi, Ibis 118: 51–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ingolfsson, A., and Estrella, J. T., 1978, The development of shellcracking behavior in Herring Gulls, Auk 95: 577–579.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jarvis, M. J. E., 1974, The ecological significance of clutch size in the South African Gannet (Sula capensis Lichtenstein), J. Anim. Ecol. 43:1-17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kepler, C. B., 1969, Breeding Biology of the Blue faced Booby Sula dactylatra personata on Green Island, Kure Atoll, Nuttall Pub. No. 8 ( R. Paynter, Jr., ed), Cambridge, Mass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kury, C. R., and Gochfeld, M., 1975, Human interference and gull predation in cormorant colonies, Biol. Conserv. 8: 23–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lack, D., 1954, The Natural Regulation of Animal Numbers, Clarendon Press, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lack. D., 1966, Population Studies of Birds, Clarendon Press, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lack. D., 1967, Interrelationships in breeding adaptation as shown by marine birds, Proc. 14th Int. Ornith. Congr. 1967:3-42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lack, D., 1968, Ecological Adaptations for Breeding in Birds, Methuen, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • LeCroy, M., 1972, Young Common and Roseate Terns learning to fish, Wilson Bull. 84: 201–202.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lockley, R. M., 1974, Ocean-Wanderers, Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, Pa., 168 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maher, W. J., 1970, Ecology of the Long-tailed Jaeger at Lake Hazen, Ellesmere Island, Arctic 23: 112–129.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, A. J., and Serventy, D. L., 1956, The breeding cycle of the Short-tailed Shearwater, Puffins tenuirostris (Temminck) in relation to transequatorial migration and its environment, Proc. Zool. Soc. London 127: 489–510.

    Google Scholar 

  • Massey, B. W., 1974, Breeding biology of the California Least Tern, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.Y. 72: 1–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maunder, J. E., and Threlfall, W., 1972, The breeding biology of the Black-legged Kittiwake in Newfoundland, Auk 89: 789–816.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, L., 1940, Observations on the Black-footed Albatross, Condor 42: 227–238.

    Google Scholar 

  • Monroe, B. L., Jr., 1956, Observations of Elegant Terns at San Diego, California, Wilson Bull. 68: 239–244.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morrison, M. L., Slack, R. D., and Shanley, E., Jr., 1978, Age and foraging ability relationships of Olivaceous Cormorants, Wilson Bull. 90: 414–422.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moyle, P., 1966, Feeding behavior of Glaucous-winged Gull on an Alaskan salmon stream, Wilson Bull. 78: 175–190.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moynihan, M., 1959, A revision of the family Laridae (Ayes), Am. Mus. Novit. 1928: 1–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, E. C., 1979, Seasonal variation in reproductive output of House Sparrows: The Determination of clutch size, Ecology 59: 1189–1199.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, R. C., 1936, Oceanic Birds of South America, Vol. II, MacMillan, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, J. B., 1966, The breeding biology of the Gannet Sula bassana on the Bass Rock, Scotland, Ibis 108: 584–626.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, J. B., 1967a, The breeding behaviour of the White-Footed Booby Sula dactylatra, Ibis 109: 194–231.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, J. B., 1967b, Etho-ecological adaptations in the Great Frigatebird, Nature (London) 214: 318.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, J. B., 1968, Galapagos: Islands of Birds,Morrow, New York, 335 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, J. B., 1969a, The breeding behavior of the Red-footed Booby Sula sula, Ibis 111: 357–385.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, J. B., 19696. The breeding ecology of the Red-Footed Booby in the Galapagos, J. Anim. Ecol. 38: 181–198.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, J. B., 1970, The relationship between behavior and ecology in the Sulidae with reference to other sea birds, Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Annu. Rev. 8: 501–574.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, J. B., 1975a. The breeding biology of frigatebirds—A comparative review, Living Bird 14: 113–156.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, J. B., 1975b, Functional aspects of behavior in the Sulidae, in: Function and Evolution in Behavior ( G. Baerends, C. Beer, and A. Manning, eds.), pp. 313–330, Clarendon Press, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nettleship, D. N., 1972, Breeding success of the Common Puffin (Fratercula arctic L.) on different habitats at Great Island, Newfoundland, Ecol. Monogr. 42: 239–268.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nisbet, I. C. T., 1973, Courtship feeding, egg-size and breeding success in Common Terns (Sterna hirundo), Nature (London) 241: 141–142.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oliver, W. P. B., 1955, New Zealand Birds, A. H. and A. W. Reed, Wellington, Australia. Orians

    Google Scholar 

  • G. H., 1969, Age and hunting success in the Brown Pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis), Anim. Behay. 17: 316–319.

    Google Scholar 

  • Palmer, R. S., 1941, A behavior study of the Common Tern (Sterna hirundo hirundo L.), Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. 42: 1–119.

    Google Scholar 

  • Palmer, R. S., 1962, Handbook of North American Birds, Vol I, Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn. 567 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parker, G. A., and MacNair, M. R., 1978, Models of parent-offspring conflict. I. Monogamy, Anim. Behay. 26: 97–110.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Parsons, F., and Duncan, N., 1978, Recoveries and dispersal of Herring Gulls from the Isle of May, J. Anim. Eco!. 47: 993–1005.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pennycuick, C. J., 1956, Observations on a colony of a Brunnich’s Guillemot Uric: lomvia in Spitsbergen, Ibis 78: 80–99.

    Google Scholar 

  • Potts, G. R., 1969, The influence of eruptive movements, age, population size and other factors on the survival of the Shag (Phalacrocorax aristotelis L.), J. Anim. Eco!. 38: 53–102.

    Google Scholar 

  • Recher, H. F., and Recher, J. A., 1969, Comparative foraging efficiency of adult and imma-ture Little Blue Herons (Floride caerulea), Anim. Behay. 17: 320–322.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reilly, P. N., and Balmford, P., 1975, A breeding study of the Little Penguin Eudyptula minor in Australia, in: The Biology of Penguins ( B. Stonehouse, ed.), pp. 161–187, University Park Press, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richdale, L. E., 1943a, The Kuaka or Diving Petrel, Pelecanoides urinatrix (Gmelin), Emu 43: 24–48.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richdale, L. E., 1943b, The White-faced Storm Petrel. Part 1, Trans. R. Soc. N.Z. 73:97–115. Richdale, L. E., 1943c, The White-faced Storm Petrel. Part II, Trans, R. Soc. N.Z. 73: 335–350.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richdale, L. E., 1945, Supplementary notes on the Diving Petrel, Trans, R. Soc. N.Z. 75: 42–53.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richdale, L. E., 1954, The starvation theory in Albatrosses, Auk 71: 239–252.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richdale, L. E., 1957, A Population Study of Penguins, Claredon Press, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richdale, L. E., 1963, Biology of the Sooty Shearwater, Proc. Zoo!. Soc. London 141: 1–117.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rice, D. W., and Kenyon, K. W., 1962, Breeding cycles and behavior of Laysan and Black-footed Albatrosses, Auk 79: 517–567.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ricklefs, R. E., 1968, Patterns of growth in birds, Ibis 110: 419–541.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ricklefs, R. E., 1973, Patterns of growth in birds. II. Growth rate and mode of development, Ibis 115: 177–201.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ricklefs, R. E., 1977, On the evolution of reproductive strategies in birds: reproductive effort, Am. Nat. 111: 453–478.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, B., 1934–1937, The life cycle of Wilson’s Petrel Oceanites oceanicus (Kuhl), Br. Graham Land Exped. Sci. Rep. 1: 141–194.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roggerman, W., 1970, The migration of Larus ridibundus ringed as chicks in the north of Belgium, Die Giervalk 60: 301–321.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rowan, M. K., 1952, The Greater Shearwater Puffinus gravis at its breeding grounds, Ibis 94: 97–121.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schaller, G. B., 1964, Breeding behavior of the White Pelican at Yellowstone Lake, Wyoming, Condor 66: 3–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schreiber, R. W., 1968, Seasonal population fluctuations of Herring Gulls in Central Maine, Bird-Banding 39: 81–106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schreiber, R. W., and Ashmole, N. P., 1970, Sea-bird breeding seasons on Christmas Island, Pacific Ocean, Ibis 112: 361–394.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, L. G., 1966, Seacliff Birds of Cape Thompson, in: Environment of Cape Thompson Region, Alaska ( N. J. Wilimorsky and J. N. Wolfe, eds.), U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Oak Ridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sealy, S. G., 1968, A comparative study of breeding ecology and timing in plankton-feeding alcids (Cyclorrhynchus and Aethia spp) St. Lawrence Island, Alaska, M.Sc. thesis, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, 193 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sealy, S. G., 1972, Adaptive differences in breeding biology in the marine bird family Alcidae, Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sealy, S. G., 1973a, Breeding biology of the Horned Puffin on St. Lawrence Island, Bering

    Google Scholar 

  • Sea, with zoogeographical notes on the North Pacific Puffins, Pac. Sci. 27:99–119.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sealy, S. G., 1973b, Adaptive significance of post-fledging developmental patterns in growth rates in the Alcidae, Ornis Scand. 4: 113–121.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sealy, S. G., 1973c, Interspecific feeding assemblages of marine birds off British Columbia, Auk 90: 796–800.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sealy, S. G., 1974, Breeding phenology and clutch size in the Marbled Murrelet, Auk 91: 10–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sealy, S. G., and Bédard, J., 1973, Breeding biology of the Parakeet Anklet (Cyclorrhynchus psittacula) on St. Lawrence Island, Alaska, Astarte 6: 59–68.

    Google Scholar 

  • Searcy, W. A., 1978, Foraging success in three age classes of Glaucous-winged Gulls, Auk 95: 587–588.

    Google Scholar 

  • Serventy, D. L., 1966, Aspects of the population ecology of the Short-tailed Shearwater Puffinus tenuirostris, Proc. 14th Int. Ornithol. Congr. (D. W. Snow, ed.), pp. 165–190, Blackwell, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Serventy, D. L., Serventy, V., and Warham, J., 1971, The Handbook of Australian Sea-birds, A. H. and A. W. Reed, Sydney, Australia, 254 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simmons, K. E. L., 1967, Ecological adaptations in the life history of the Brown Booby at Ascension Island, Living Bird 6: 187–212.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, J. M., 1975, Studies of breeding Sandwich Terns, Br. Birds 68: 142–156.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snow, B. K., 1960, The breeding biology of the Shag Phalacrocorax aristotelis on the island of Lundy, Bristol Channel, Ibis 102: 554–575.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snow, B. K., 1963a, The behavior of the Shag, Br. Birds 56: 77–103.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snow, B. K., 19636, The behavior of the Shag, Br. Birds 56: 164–186.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snow, B. K., and Snow, D. W., 1967, Behavior of the Swallow-tailed Gull on the Galapagos, Condor 70: 252–264.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snow, B. K., and Snow, D. W., 1969, Observations on the Lava Gull Larus fuliginosus, Ibis 111: 30–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snow, D. W., 1965, The breeding of Audubon’s Shearwater (Puffinus lherminieri) in the Galapagos, Auk 82: 591–597.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snow, D. W., and Snow, B. K. 1967. The breeding cycle of the Swallow-tailed Gull Greagrus furcatus, ibis 109: 14–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spaans, A. L., 1971, On the feeding ecology of the Herring Gull Larus argentatus Pont. in the northern part of the Netherlands, Ardea 59: 1–188.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spellerberg, I. F., 1971, Breeding behavior of the McCormick Skua Catharacta maccormicki in Antarctica, Ardea 59: 3–5, 180–230.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stonehouse, B., 1956, The King Penguin of South Georgia, Nature (London) 178: 1424–1426.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stonehouse, B., 1962, The tropic birds (genus Phaethon) of Ascension Island, Ibis 1036: 124–161.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stonehouse, B., and Stonehouse, S., 1963, The frigatebird Fregata aquila of Ascension Island, Ibis 1036: 409–422.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strang, C. A., 1973, The Alaskan Glaucous Gull (Larus hyperboreus barrovianus Ridgway): Autecology, Taxonomy, Behavior, Department of Forestry and Conservation, Purdue University, W. Lafayette, Indiana, 20 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, R. H., 1962, The Adelie Penguin Pygoscelis adeliae at Cape Royds, Ibis 104: 176–204.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomson, A. L., 1964, A New Dictionary of Birds, McGraw-Hill, New York, 928 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thorensen, A. C., 1964, The breeding behavior of the Cassin’s Auklet, Condor 66: 456–476.

    Google Scholar 

  • Threlfall, W., 1978, Dispersal of Herring Gulls from the Witless Bay Sea Bird Sanctuary, Newfoundland, Bird-Banding, 49: 116–124.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tickell, W. L. N., 1960, Chick feeding in the Wandering Albatross Diomedea exulans Linnaeus, Nature (London) 185: 116–117.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tickell, W. L. N., 1968, The Biology of the Great Albatross Diomedea exulans and Diomedea epomophora, in: Antarctic Bird Studies ( O. L. Austin, Jr., ed.), National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tomkins, I. R., 1959, Life history notes on the Least Tern, Wilson Bull. 71: 314–322.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tremblay, J., and Ellison, L. N., 1979, Effects of human disturbance on breeding of Black-crowned Night Herons, Auk 96: 364–369.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trivers, R. L., 1972, Parental investment and sexual selection, in: Sexual Selection and the Descent of Man ( B. Campbell, ed.), pp. 136–179, Aldine, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tuck, L. M., 1961, The Murres, Queen’s Printer, Ottawa.

    Google Scholar 

  • Verbeek, N. A. M., 1977a, Age differences in the digging frequency of Herring Gulls on a dump, Condor 79: 123–125.

    Google Scholar 

  • Verbeek, N. A. M., 19776 Comparative feeding behavior of immature and adult Herring Gulls, Wilson Bull. 89: 415–421.

    Google Scholar 

  • Verbeek, N. A. M., 1977c, Comparative feeding ecology of Herring Gulls Larus argentatus and Lesser Black-backed Gulls Larus fuscus, Ardea 65: 25–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vermeer, K., 1963, The breeding ecology of the Glaucous-winged Gull (Larus glaucescens) on Mandarte Island, B.C., Occ. Papers B.C. Prov. Mus. 13: 1–104.

    Google Scholar 

  • Verner, J., 1961, Nesting activities of the Red-footed Booby in British Honduras, Auk 78: 573–594.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warham, J., 1956, The breeding of the Great-winged Petrel Pterodroma macroptera, Ibis 98: 171–185.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warham, J., 1958, The nesting of the Shearwater Puffinus carneiepes, Auk 75: 1–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warham, J., 1962, The biology of the Giant Petrel, Macronectes giganteus, Auk 79: 139–160.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warham, J., 1963, The Rockhopper Penguin, Eudyptes chrysocome at Macquarie Island, Auk 80: 229–256

    Google Scholar 

  • Warham, J., 1966, Giant Petrels: The birds called, J., 1966, Giant Petrels: The birds called “Stinkers,” Animal Kingdom (Bronx Zoo) Feb. 1966.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warham, J., 1974, The Fiordland Crested Penguin Eudyptes pachyrhynchus, Ibis 116: 1–27.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warham, J., 1975, The Crested Penguin, in: The Biology of Penguins ( B. Stonehouse, ed.), pp. 189–270, University Park Press, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilbur, H. M., 1969, The breeding biology of Leach’s Petrel, Oceanodroma leucorhoa, Auk 86: 433–442.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, G. C., 1966, Natural selection, the cost of reproduction, and a refinement of Lack’s principle, Am. Nat. 100: 687–692.

    Google Scholar 

  • Witherby, H. F., Jourdain, F. C. R., Ticehurst, N. F., and Tucker, B. W., 1941, The Handbook of British Birds, Vol. 5, H. F. and G. Witherby, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolk, R. G., 1959, Some reproductive behavior patterns of the Black Skimmer, Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y., 78 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodbury, A. M., and Knight, H., 1951, Results of the Pacific Gull colorbanding project, Condor 53: 57–77.

    Google Scholar 

  • Young, E. C., 1963, The breeding behavior of the South Polar Skua Catharacta maccormicki, Ibis 105: 203–233.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zino, P. A., 1971, The breeding of Cory’s Shearwater Calonectris diomedea on the Salvage Islands, Ibis 113: 212–217.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1980 Plenum Press, New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Burger, J. (1980). The Transition to Independence and Postfledging Parental Care in Seabirds. In: Burger, J., Olla, B.L., Winn, H.E. (eds) Behavior of Marine Animals. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-2988-6_10

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-2988-6_10

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4684-2990-9

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4684-2988-6

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics