Abstract
Birds are “homeotherms,” which means that they maintain a relatively constant deep-body temperature (Bligh and Johnson, 1973). Birds are also “endotherms,” a term indicating that they are able to increase their body temperature by generating a considerable amount of heat within their tissues instead of relying on heat gained directly from their surroundings.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Arad, Z., and J. Marder. (1982). Comparative thermoregulation of four breeds of fowls (Gallus domesticus) exposed to a gradual increase of ambient temperatures. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A, 72, 179.
Arieli, A., A. Berman, and A. Meltzer. (1978). Indication for non-shivering thermogenesis in the adult fowl (Gallus domesticus). Comp. Biochem. Physiol., C: Comp. Pharmacol., 60, 33.
Arieli, A., A. Berman, and A. Meltzer. (1979). Cold thermogenesis in the summer-acclimatized and cold-acclimated domestic fowl. Comp. Biochem. Physiol., C: Comp. Pharmacol., 63, 7.
Aulie, A. (1976a). The pectoral muscles and the development of thermoregulation in chicks of Willow Ptarmigan (Lagopus lagopus). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A, 53, 343.
Aulie, A. (1976b). The shivering pattern in an arctic (Willow Ptarmigan) and a tropical bird (bantam hen). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A, 53, 347.
Aulie, A., and H.J. Grav. (1979). Effect of cold acclimation on the oxidative capacity of skeletal muscles and liver in young bantam chicks. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A, 62, 335.
Avery, P. and S.A. Richards. (1983). Thermosensitivity of the hypothalamus and spinal cord in the domestic fowl. J. Therm. Biol., 8, 237.
Bakken, G.S. (1980). The use of standard operative temperature in the study of the thermal energetics of birds. Physiol. Zool., 53, 108.
Bakken, G.S., W.A. Buttemer, W.R. Dawson, and D.M. Gates. (1981). Heated taxidermic mounts: A means of measuring the standard operative temperature affecting small animals. Ecology, 62, 311.
Barnas, G.M., J.A. Estavillo, F.B. Mather, and R.E. Burger. (1981). The effect of CO2 and temperature on respiratory movements in the chicken. Respir. Physiol., 43, 315.
Barré, H. (1983). Calorigenic action of glucagon in several species of chicks at neutral ambient temperatures. In “Environment, Drugs and Thermoregulation” ( P. Lomax and E. Schónbaum, Eds.). Basel: Karger, p. 31.
Bartholomew, G.A., F.N. White, and T.R. Howell. (1976). The thermal significance of the nest of the Sociable Weaver Philetairus socius: Summer observations. Ibis, 118, 402.
Bartholomew, G.A., C.M. Vleck, and T.L. Bucher. (1983). Energy metabolism and nocturnal hypothermia in two tropical passerine frugivores, Manacus vitellinus and Pipra mentalis. Physiol. Zool., 56, 370.
Baudinette, R.V., and K. Schmidt-Nielsen. (1974). Energy cost of gliding flight in herring gulls. Nature (London), 248, 83.
Baudinette, R.V., J.P. Loveridge, K.J. Wilson, C.D. Mills, and K. Schmidt-Nielsen. (1976). Heat loss from feet of herring gulls at rest and during flight. Am. J. Physiol., 230, 920.
Bech, C. (1980). Body temperature, metabolic rate, and insulation in winter and summer acclimatized Mute Swans (Cygnus olor). J. Comp. Physiol., 136, 61.
Bech, C., and K. Johansen. (1980). Ventilatory and circulatory responses to hyperthermia in the Mute Swan (Cygnus olor).). Exp. Biol., 88, 195.
Bech, C., K. Johansen, and G.M.O. Maloiy. (1979). Ventilation and expired gas composition in the flamingo, Phoenicopterus ruber, during normal respiration and panting. Physiol. Zool., 52, 313.
Bech, C., W. Rautenberg, B. May, and K. Johansen. (1982). Regional blood flow changes in response to thermal stimulation of the brain and spinal cord in the Pekin Duck. J. Comp. Physiol., 147, 71.
Bennett, A.F., and W.R. Dawson. (1979). Physiological responses of embryonic Heermann’s Gulls to temperature. Physiol. Zool., 52, 413.
Berger, M., and J.S. Hart. (1972). Die Atmung beim Kolibri Amizilia fimbriata Während des Schwirrfluges bei verschiedenen Umgebungstemperaturen. J. Comp. Physiol., 81, 363.
Berger, M., J.S. Hart, and O.Z. Roy. (1970). Respiration, oxygen consumption and heart rate in some birds during rest and flight. Z. Vgl: Physiol., 66, 201.
Berman, A., and A. Meltzer. (1978). Metabolic rate: its circadian rhythmicity in the female domestic fowl. J. Physiol., 282, 419.
Bernstein, M.H., and F.C. Samaniego. (1981). Ventilation and acid-base status during thermal panting in pigeons (Columba livia). Physiol. Zool., 54, 308.
Bernstein, M.H., S.P. Thomas, and K. Schmidt-Nielsen. (1973). Power input during flight of the Fish Crow, Corvus ossifragus. J. Exp. Biol., 58, 401.
Bernstein, M.H., M.B. Curtis, and D.M. Hudson. (1979a). Independence of brain and body temperatures in flying American kestrels, Falco sparverius. Am. J. Physiol., 237, R58.
Bernstein, M.H., I. Sandoval, M.B. Curtis, and D.M. Hudson. (1979b). Brain temperature in pigeons: effects of anterior respiratory bypass. J. Comp. Physiol., 129, 115.
Bligh, J., and K.G. Johnson. (1973). Glossary of terms for thermal physiology. J. Appl. Physiol., 35, 941.
Booth, D.T. (1984). Thermoregulation in neonate Mallee Fowl Leipoa ocellata. Physiol. Zool., 57, 251.
Bouverot, P., G. Hildwein, and D. Le Goff. (1974). Evaporative water loss, respiratory pattern, gas exchange and acid- base balance during thermal panting in Pekin Ducks exposed to moderate heat. Respir. Physiol., 21, 255.
Brackenbury, J.H. (1978). Experimentally induced antagonism of chemical and thermal reflexes in the respiratory system of fully conscious chickens. Respir. Physiol., 34, 377.
Brackenbury,J., P. Avery, and M. Gleeson. (1981a). Respiratory evaporation in panting fowl: partition between the respiratory and buccopharyngeal pumps. J. Comp. Physiol., 145, 63.
Brackenbury, J.H., M. Gleeson, and P. Avery. (1981b). Respiration in exercising fowl. II. Respiratory water loss and heat balance. J. Exp. Biol., 93, 327.
Brent, R., P.F. Pedersen, C. Bech, and K. Johansen. (1984). Lung ventilation and temperature regulation in the European Coot Fulica atra. Physiol. Zool., 57, 19.
Brown, J.H., W.A. Calder, and A. Kodric-Brown. (1978). Correlates and consequences of body size in nectar-feeding birds. Am. Zool., 18, 687.
Butler, P.J., N.H. West, and D.R. Jones. (1977). Respiratory and cardiovascular responses of the pigeon to sustained level flight in a wind tunnel. J. Exp. Biol., 71, 7.
Calder, W.A., and J.R. King. (1974). Thermal and caloric relations of birds. In “Avian Biology,” Vol. IV ( D.S. Farner and J.R. King, Eds.). New York: Academic Press, p. 259.
Calder, W.A., and T.J. Dawson. (1978). Resting metabolic rates of ratite birds: the kiwis and the Emu. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A, 60, 479.
Chappel, M.A. (1980). Thermal energetics of chicks of arctic- breeding shorebirds. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A, 65, 311.
Chappell, M.A., D.L. Goldstein, and D.W. Winkler. (1984). Oxygen consumption, evaporative water loss, and temperature regulation of California Gull chicks (Larus californicus) in a desert rookery. Physiol. Zool., 57, 204.
Dawson, W.R. (1975). Avian physiology. Ann. Rev. Physiol., 37, 441.
Dawson, W.R. (1982). Evaporation losses of water by birds. Comp. Biochem. Physiol., 71A, 495.
Dawson, W.R., and A.F. Bennett. (1980). Metabolism and thermoregulation in hatchling Western Gulls. Condor, 82, 103.
Dawson, W.R., and C.D. Fisher. (1982). Observations on the temperature regulation and water economy of the Galah (Cacatua roseicapilla). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A, 72, 1.
Dawson, W.R., A.F. Bennett, and J.W. Hudson. (1976). Metabolism and thermoregulation in hatchling Ring-billed Gulls. Condor, 78, 49.
Dawson, W.R., R.L. Marsh, W.A. Buttener, and C. Carey. (1983). Seasonal and geographic variation of cold resistance in House Finches Carpodacus mexianus. Physiol. Zool., 56, 353.
De Jong, A.A. (1976). The influence of simulated solar radiation on the metabolic rate of White-crowned Sparrows. Condor, 78, 1974.
Dunn, E.H. (1975). Growth, body components and energy content of nestling Double-crested Cormorants. Condor, 77, 431.
Dunn, E.H. (1976). The development of endothermy and existence energy expenditure in Herring Gull chicks. Condor, 78, 493.
Ebibara, S., and H. Kawamura. (1981). The role of the pineal organ and the supra-chiasmatic nucleus in the control of circadian locomotor rhythms in the Java Sparrow, Padda oryzivora. J. Comp. Physiol., 141, 207.
Eissel, K., and E. Simon. (1980). How are neuronal thermo- sensitivity and lack of thermoreception related in the duck’s hypothalamus? A tentative answer. J. Therm. Biol., 5, 219.
El-Halawani, M. El-S., W.O. Wilson, and R.E. Burger. (1970). Cold acclimation and the role of catecholamines in body temperature regulation in male Leghorns. Poult. Sci., 49, 621.
El-Halawani, M.E., P.E. Waibel, J R. Appel, and A.L. Good. (1973). Effects of temperature stress on catecholamines and corticosterone of male turkeys. Am. J. Physiol., 224, 384.
Ellis, H.I. (1980). Metabolism and solar radiation in dark and white herons in hot climates. Physiol. Zool., 53, 358.
Eppley, Z.A. (1984). Development of thermoregulatory abilities in Xantus’ Murrelet chicks Synthliboramphus hypoleucus. Physiol. Zool., 57, 307.
Freeman, B.M. (1977). Lipolysis and its significance in the response to cold of the neonatal fowl, Gallus domesticus. J. Therm. Biol., 2, 145.
Freeman, B.M. (1979). Is 5-hydroxytryptamine concerned in avian thermoregulation? J. Therm. Biol., 4, 219.
Frost, P.G.H., W.R. Siegfried, and P.J. Greenwood. (1975). Arterio-venous heat exchange systems in the Jackass penguin Spheniscus demersus. J. Zool., 175, 231.
Gates, D.M. (1980). “Biophysical Ecology.” New York: Springer-Verlag.
Graf, R. (1980). Simultaneously activated heat gain and heat loss mechanisms in pigeons. Proc. I.U.P.S., 14, 442.
Graf, R., and R. Necker. (1979). Cyclic and noncyclic variations of spinal cord temperature related with temperature regulation in pigeons. Pfleugers Arch., 380, 215.
Graf, R., H.C. Heller, and S. Sakaguchi. (1983). Slight warming of the spinal cord and the hypothalamus in the pigeon: effects on thermoregulation and sleep during the night. J. Therm. Biol., 8, 159.
Grant, G.S. (1982). Avian incubation: egg temperature, nest humidity, and behavioral thermoregulation in a hot environment. Ornithol. Monogr., No. 30.
Hagan, A.A., and J.E. Heath. (1980). Regulation of heat loss in the duck by vasomotion in bill. J. Therm. Biol., 5, 95.
Hailman, J.P. (1982). Radiation angle and heat transferred to a bird. Science, 219, 919.
Hails, C.J. (1979). A comparison of flight energetics in hirundines and other birds. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A, 63, 581.
Hails, C.J. (1983). The metabolic rate of tropical birds. Condor, 8, 61.
Haim, A., S. Saarela, and R. Hissa. (1979). Heat production induced by photoperiodicity in the pigeon. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A, 63, 547.
Hayes, S.R., and J. A. Gessaman. (1982). Prediction of raptor resting metabolism: comparison of measured values with statistical and biophysical estimates. J. Therm. Biol., 7, 45.
Helfmann, W., P. Jannes, and C. Jessen. (1981). Total body thermosensitivity and its spinal and supra-spinal fractions in the conscious goose. Pfleugers Arch., 391, 60.
Hennemann, W.W. (1983). Environmental influences on the energetics and behavior of Anhingas and Double-crested Cormorants. Physiol. Zool., 56, 201.
Hill, R.W., and D.L. Beaver. (1982). Inertial thermostability and thermoregulation in broods of Redwing Blackbirds. Physiol. Zool., 55, 250.
Hill, R.W., D.L. Beaver, and J.H. Veghte. (1980). Body surface temperatures and thermoregulation in the Black- capped Chickadee (Parus atricapillus). Physiol. Zool., 53, 305.
Hissa, R., and R. Palokangas. (1970). Thermoregulation in the Titmouse (Parus major L.). Comp. Biochem. Physiol., 33, 941.
Hissa, R., and W. Rautenberg. (1974). The influence of centrally applied noradrenaline on shivering and body temperature in the pigeon. J. Physiol., 238, 421.
Hissa, R., and W. Rautenberg. (1975). Thermoregulatory effects of intrahypothalamic injections of neurotransmitters and their inhibitors in the pigeon. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A, 51, 319.
Hissa, R., A. Pyornila, and J.C. George. (1980). The influence of intrahypothalamic injections of prostaglandins E1 and F2α and ambient temperature on thermoregulation in the pigeon. J. Therm. Biol., 5, 163.
Hissa, R., S. Saarela, H. Rintamaki, H. Linden, and E. Hohtola. (1983). Energetics and development of temperature regulation in Capercaillie Tetrao urogallus. Physiol. Zool., 56, 142.
Hohtola, E., H. Rintamaki, and R. Hissa. (1980). Shivering and ptiloerection as complementary cold defense responses in the pigeon during sleep and wakefulness. J. Comp. Physiol., 136, 77.
Horowitz, K.A., N.R. Scott, P.E. Hillman, and A. van Tienhoven. (1978). Effects of feathers on instrumental thermoregulatory behavior in chickens. Physiol. Behav., 21, 233.
Howell, T.R. (1979). Breeding biology of the Egyptian Plover, Pluvianus aegyptius. Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool., 113, 1.
Howell, T.R., and G.A. Bartholomew. (1961). Temperature regulation in Laysan and Black-footed albatrosses. Condor, 63, 185.
Howell, T.R., B. Araya, and W.R. Millie. (1974). Breeding biology of the Gray Gull, Larus modestus. Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool., 104, 1.
Hudson, D.M., and M.H. Bernstein. (1981). Temperature regulation and heat balance in flying White-necked Ravens, Corvus cryptoleucus. J. Exp. Biol., 90, 267.
Hudson,J.W., W.R. Dawson, and R.W. Hill. (1974). Growth and development of temperature regulation in nestling Cattle Egrets. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A, 49, 717.
Johansen, K., and R.W. Millard. (1973). Vascular responses to temperature in the foot of the giant fulmar, Macronectes giganteus. J. Comp. Physiol., 85, 47.
Kendeigh, S.C., V.R. Dol’nick and V.M. Gavrilov. (1977). Avian energetics. In “Granivorous Birds in Ecosystems” ( J. Pinowski and S.C. Kendeigh, Eds.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 127.
Kilgore, D.L. (1976). Brain temperatures in birds. J. Comp. Physiol., 110, 209.
Kilgore, D.L., and K. Schmidt-Nielsen. (1975). Heat loss from duck’s feet immersed in cold water. Condor, 77, 475.
Kilgore, D.L., D.F. Boggs, and G.F. Birchard. (1979). Role of the rete mirabile ophthalmicum in maintaining the body-to-brain temperature difference in pigeons. J. Comp. Physiol., 129, 119.
Klandorf, H., R.W. Lea, and P.J. Sharp. (1982). Thyroid function in laying, incubating and broody bantam hens. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol., 47, 492.
Kluger, M.J. (1979). Phylogeny of fever. Fed. Proc. Fed. Am. Soc. Exp. Biol., 38, 30.
Koban, M., and D.D. Feist. (1982). The effect of cold on norepinephrine turnover in tissues of seasonably acclimatized redpolls (Carduelis flammea). J. Comp. Physiol., 146, 137.
Kooyman, G.L., R.L. Gentry, W.P. Bergman, and H.T. Hammel. (1976). Heat loss in penguins during immersion and compression. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A, 54, 75.
Le Maho, Y. (1983). Metabolic adaptations to long-term fasting in antarctic penguins and domestic geese. J. Therm. Biol., 8, 91.
Le Maho, Y., P. Delclitte, and J. Chatonnet. (1976). Thermoregulation in fasting emperor penguins under natural conditions. Am. J. Physiol., 231, 913.
Lustick, S. (1969). Bird energetics: Effects of artificial radiation. Science, 163, 387.
Lustick, S.I. (1983). Cost-benefit of thermoregulation in birds: influences of posture, microhabitat selection, and color. In “Behavioral Energetics: the Cost of Survival in Vertebrates” ( W.P. Aspey and S.I. Lustick, Eds.). Columbus: Ohio State University Press, p. 265.
Lustick, S., S. Talbot, and E.L. Fox. (1970). Absorption of radiant energy in Red-winged Blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus). Condor, 72, 471.
Lustick, S., B. Battersby, and M. Kelty. (1978). Behavioral thermoregulation: orientation toward the sun in Herring Gulls. Science, 200, 81.
Lustick, S., B. Battersby, and M. Kelty. (1979). Effects of insolation on juvenile Herring Gull energetics and behavior. Ecology, 60, 673.
MacMillen, R.E. (1981). Nonconformance of standard metabolic rate with body mass in Hawaiian Honeycreepers. Oecologia, 49: 340.
MacMillen, R.E., G.C. Whittow, E.A. Christopher, and R.J. Ebisu. (1977). Oxygen consumption, evaporative water loss and body temperature in the Sooty Tern. Auk, 94, 72.
Marder, J. (1973). Body temperature regulation in the Brown-necked Raven (Corvus cor ax ruficollis) 1. Metabolic rate, evaporative water loss and body temperature of the raven exposed to heat stress. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A, 45, 421.
Marjakangas, A., H. Rintamaki and R. Hissa. (1984). Thermal responses in the Capercaillie Tetrao urogallus and the Black Grouse Lyrurus tetrix roosting in the snow. Physiol. Zool., 57, 99.
Marsh, R.L. (1979). Development of endothermy in nestling Bank Swallows (Riparia riparia). Physiol. Zool., 52, 340.
Marsh, R.L., and W.R. Dawson. (1982). Substrate metabolism in seasonally acclimatized American goldfinches. Am. J. Physiol., 242, R 563.
Mather, F.B., G.M. Barnas, and R.E. Burger. (1980). The influence of alkalosis on panting. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A, 67, 265.
McNab, B.K. (1980). On estimating thermal conductance in endotherms. Physiol. Zool., 53, 145.
Menaum, B., and S.A. Richards. (1975). Observations on the sites of respiratory evaporation in the fowl during thermal panting. Respir. Physiol., 25, 39.
Misson, B.H. (1974). An open circuit respirometer for metabolic studies on the domestic fowl: establishment of standard operating conditions. Br. Poult. Sci., 15, 287.
Misson, B.H. (1977). The relationships between age, mass, body temperature and metabolic rate in the neonatal fowl (Gallus domesticus). J. Therm. Biol., 2, 107.
Misson, B.H. (1982). The thermoregulatory responses of fed and starved 1-week-old chickens (Gallus domesticus). J. Therm. Biol., 7, 189.
Morton, M.L., and C. Carey. (1971). Growth and the development of endothermy in the Mountain White-crowned Sparrow (Zonotricbia leucophrys oriantha). Physiol. Zool., 44, 177.
Murrish, D.E. (1973). Respiratory heat and water exchange in penguins. Respir. Physiol., 19, 262.
Murrish, D.E. (1982). Acid-base balance in three species of antarctic penguins exposed to thermal stress. Physiol. Zool., 55, 137.
Murrish, D.E. (1983). Acid-base balance in penguin chicks exposed to thermal stress. Physiol. Zool., 56, 335.
Myrhe, K. (1978). Behavioral temperature regulation in neonate chick of bantam hen (Gallus domesticus). Poult. Sci., 57, 1369.
Necker, R. (1977). Thermal sensitivity of different skin areas in pigeons. J. Comp. Physiol., 116, 239.
Necker, R., and W. Rautenberg. (1975). Effect of spinal deaf- ferentation on temperature regulation and spinal thermo-sensitivity in pigeons. Pfleugers Arch., 360, 287.
Nice, M.M. (1962). Development of behavior in precocial birds. Trans. Linn. Soc. (N.Y.), 8, 1.
Nistico, G., and E. Marley. (1976). Central effects of prosta-glandins E2, A1 and F2α in adult fowls. Neuropharmacology, 15, 737.
Nomoto, S., C. Bech, W. Rautenberg, and K. Johansen. (1983). Temperature regulation and cardiovascular responses during bipedal exercise in birds. J. Therm. Biol., 8, 175.
O’Connor, R.J. (1975). Growth and metabolism in nestling passerines. In “Avian Physiology” ( M. Peaker, Ed.). London: Academic Press, p. 277.
Palokangas, R., and R. Hissa. (1971). Thermoregulation in young Black-headed Gull (Larus ridibundus L.). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A, 38, 743.
Pettit, T.N., G.C. Whittow, and G.S. Grant. (1981). Rete mirabile ophthalmicum in Hawaiian Seabirds. Auk, 98, 844.
Pinshow, B., M.A. Fedak, D.R. Battles, and K. Schmidt-Nielsen. (1976). Energy expenditure for thermoregulation and locomotion in emperor penguins. Am. J. Physiol., 231, 903.
Pinshow, B., M.H. Bernstein, G.E. Lopez, and S. Kleinhaus. (1982). Regulation of brain temperature in pigeons: effects of corneal convection. Am. J. Physiol., 242, R577.
Prinzinger, R. (1982). The energy costs of temperature regulation in birds: the influence of quick sinusoidal temperature fluctuations on the gaseous metabolism of the Japanese Quail (Coturnix coturnixjaponica). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A, 71, 469.
Prinzinger, R., and I. Hanssler. (1980). Metabolism-weight relationship in some small non-passerine birds. Experientia, 36, 1299.
Ramirez, J.M., and M.H. Bernstein. (1976). Compound ventilation during thermal panting in pigeons: a possible mechanism for minimizing hypocapnic alkalosis. Fed. Proc. Fed. Am. Soc. Exp. Biol., 35, 2562.
Rautenberg, W., R. Necker, and B. May. (1972). Thermoregulatory responses of the pigeon to changes of the brain and the spinal cord temperatures. Pfleugers Arch., 338, 31.
Rayner, J.M.V. (1982). Avian flight energetics. Annu. Rev. Physiol., 44, 109.
Rintamaki, H., S. Saarela, A. Marjakangas, and R. Hissa. (1983) Summer and winter temperature regulation in the Black Grouse Lyrurus tetrix. Physiol. Zool., 56, 152.
Saarela, S., and O. Vakkuri. (1982). Photoperiod-induced changes in temperature-metabolism curve, shivering threshold and body temperature in the pigeon. Experientia, 38, 373.
Schmidt, I. (1978a). Behavioral and autonomic thermoregulation in heat stressed pigeons modified by central thermal stimulation. J. Comp. Physiol., 127, 75.
Schmidt, I. (1978b). Interactions of behavioral and autonomic thermoregulation in heat-stressed pigeons. Pfleugers Arch., 374, 47.
Schmidt, I. (1983). Weighting regional thermal inputs to explain autonomic and behavioral thermoregulation in the pigeon. J. Therm. Biol., 8, 47.
Schuchmann, K.L. (1979). Metabolism of flying hummingbirds. Ibis, 121, 85.
Shapiro, C.J., and W.W. Weathers. (1981). Metabolic and behavioral responses of American Kestrels to food deprivation. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A, 68, 111.
Sieland, M.,J.D. Delius, W. Rautenberg, and B. May. (1981). Thermoregulation mediated by conditioned heart-rate changes in pigeons. J. Comp. Physiol., 144, 375.
Simon, E., C. Simon-Opperman, H.T. Hammel, R. Kaul, and J. Maggert. (1976). Effects of altering rostral brain stem temperature on temperature regulation in the Adelie Penguin, Pygoscelis adeliae. Pfleugers Arch., 362, 7.
Simon-Oppermann, C., and R. Martin. (1979). Mammalian-like thermosensitivity in the lower brainstem of the Pekin Duck. Pfleugers Arch., 379, 291.
Simon-Opperman, C., E. Simon, C. Jessen, and H.T. Hammel. (1978). Hypothalamic thermosensitivity in conscious Pekin ducks. Am. J. Physiol., 235, R130.
Skowron, C., and M. Kern. (1980). The insulation in nests of selected North American songbirds. Auk, 97, 816.
Smith, W.K., S.W. Roberts, and P.C. Miller. (1974). Calculating the nocturnal energy expenditure of an incubating Anna’s Hummingbird. Condor, 76, 176.
Snapp, B.D., H.C. Heller, and S.M. Gospe, Jr. (1977). Hypothalamic sensitivity in California Quail (Lophortyx californicus). J. Comp. Physiol., 107, 345.
Southwick, E.E., and D.M. Gates. (1975). Energetics of occupied hummingbird nests. In “Perspectives of Biophysical Ecology” ( D.M. Gates and R.B. Schmerl, Eds.). New York: Springer-Verlag, p. 417.
Spiers, D.E., R.A. McNabb, and F.M.A. McNabb. (1974). The development of thermoregulatory ability, heat-seeking activities, and thyroid function in hatchling Japanese Quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica). J. Comp. Physiol., 89, 159.
Stahel, C.D., and S.C. Nicol. (1982). Temperature regulation in the Little Penguin, Eudyptula minor, in air and water. J. Comp. Physiol., 148, 93.
Torre-Bueno, J.R. (1978). Evaporative cooling and water balance during flight in birds. J. Exp. Biol., 75, 231.
Torre-Bueno, J.R., and J. Larochelle. (1978). The metabolic cost of flight in unrestrained birds. J. Exp. Biol., 75, 223.
Turner, J.C., and L. McClanahan. (1981). Physiogenesis of endothermy and its relation to growth in the Great Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A, 68, 167.
Walker, L.E., J.M. Walker, J.W. Palca, and R.J. Berger. (1983). A continuum of sleep and shallow torpor in fasting doves. Science, 221, 194.
Walsberg, G.E., G.S. Campbell, and J.R. King (1978). Animal coat color and radiative heat gain: A re-evaluation. J. Comp. Physiol., 126, 211.
Weathers, W.W. (1979). Climatic adaptation in avian standard metabolic rate. Oecologia, 42, 81.
Weathers, W.W. (1981). Physiological thermoregulation in heat-stressed birds: consequences of body size. Physiol. Zool., 54, 345.
Weathers, W.W., and D.C. Schoenbaechler. (1976). Contribution of gular flutter to evaporative cooling in Japanese Quail. J. Appl. Physiol., 40, 521.
Weathers, W.W., and C. van Riper, III. (1982). Temperature regulation in two endangered Hawaiian honey creepers: the Palila (Psittirostra bailleui) and the Laysan Finch (Psittirostra cantans). Auk, 99, 667.
Whittow, G.C. (1965). Regulation of body temperature. In “Avian Physiology,” 2nd ed. ( P.D. Sturkie, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell University Press, p. 186.
Whittow, G.C. (1976). Regulation of body temperature. In “Avian Physiology,” 3rd ed. ( P.D. Sturkie, Ed.). New York: Springer-Verlag, p. 146.
Whittow, G.C. (1980). Thermoregulatory behavior of the Laysan and Black-footed Albatross. Elepaio, 40, 97.
Whittow, G.C., and A.J. Berger. (1977). Heat loss from the nest of the Hawaiian honeycreeper, “Amakihi.” Wilson Bull., 89, 480.
Whittow, G.C., C.T. Araki, and R.L. Pepper. (1978). Body temperature of the Great Frigate-bird Fregata minor. Ibis, 120, 358.
Withers, PC. (1977). Measurement of VO2, VCO2 and evaporative water loss with a flow-through mask. J. Appl. Physiol., 42, 120.
Wunder, B.A. (1979). Evaporative water loss from birds: effects of artificial radiation. Comp. Biochem Physiol. A, 63, 493.
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1986 Springer-Verlag New York, Inc.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Whittow, G.C. (1986). Regulation of Body Temperature. In: Sturkie, P.D. (eds) Avian Physiology. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-4862-0_9
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-4862-0_9
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4612-9335-4
Online ISBN: 978-1-4612-4862-0
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive