Abstract
Melanins are generally described as dark brown or black pigments of high molecular weight formed by oxidative polymerization of phenolic compounds. Certain yellow, red, green, purple, or blue pigments have similar chemical structures and occasionally are referred to as types of melanins. Melanins are found in humans and various other warm- and cold-blooded vertebrates; invertebrates, including insects; higher plants; fungi; and bacteria, including actinomycetes. Most animal melanins are synthesized by tyrosinase, whereas a number of less specific polyphenol oxidases may form melanins in various cellular and extracellular environments of other organisms. In some cases melanins are autoxidative products made in the absence of enzymes.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ajello L, Iger M, Wybel R, Vigil FJ: Drechslera rostrata as an agent of phaeohyphomycosis. Mycologia 82:1094–1102, 1980.
Al-Doory Y: The infrastructure of Cryptococcus neoformans. Sabouraudia 9:113–118,1971.
Aldridge DC, Davies AB, Jackson, MR, Turner WB: Pentaketide metabolites of the fungus Phialophora lagerbergii. J Chem Soc Perkin Trans 1:1540–1541, 1974.
Allport DC, Bu’Lock JD: Biosynthetic pathways in Daldinia concentrica. J Chem Soc Part I, 654–662, 1960.
Araki F, Miyagi Y: Effects of fungicides on penetration by Pyricularia oryzae as evaluated by an improved cellophane method. J Pesticide Sci 2:457–461,1977.
Arnone A, Camarda L, Nasini G: Secondary mould metabolites. Part 13. Fungal perylenequinones: Phleichrome, isophleichrome, and their endoperoxides. J Chem Soc Perkin Trans 1:1387–1392, 1985.
Arnone A, Nasini G, Merlini L, Assante G: Secondary mould metabolites. Part 16. Stemphylotoxins. New reduced perylenequinone metabolites from Stemphylium botryosum var. lactucum . J Chem Soc Perkin Trans 1:525–530, 1986.
Assante G, Locci R, Camarda L, Merlini L, Nasini G: Screening of the genus Cercospora for secondary metabolites. Phytochemistry 16:243–247, 1977.
Astill BD, Roberts JC: Studies in mycological chemistry. Part I. Flaviolin, 2 (or 3):5:7-trihydroxy-l:4-naphthaquinone, a metabolic product of Aspergillus citricus (Wehmer) Mosseray. J Chem Soc Part 3, 3302–3307, 1953.
Bardshiri E, Simpson TJ: 13C and 2H labelling studies on the biosynthesis of scytalone in Phialophora lagerbergii. Tetrahedron 39:3539–3542, 1983.
Bartsch E, Lerbs W, Luckner M: Phenol oxidase activity and pigment synthesis in conidiospores of Pencillium cudopium. Z Allg Mikrobiol 19:75–82, 1979
Bell AA: Biochemical mechanisms of disease resistance. Ann Rev Plant Physiol 32:21–81, 1981.
Bell AA, Puhalla, JE, TolmsoffWJ, Stipanovic RD: Use of mutants to establish (+ )-scytalone as an intermediate in melanin biosynthesis by Verticillium dahliae. Can J Microbiol 22:787–799, 1976.
Bell AA, Stipanovic RD, Puhalla JE: Pentaketide metabolites of Verticillium dahliae: Identification of (+ )-scytalone as a natural precursor to melanin. Tetrahedron 32:1353–1356, 1976.
Bell AA, Wheeler MH: Biosynthesis and functions of fungal melanins. Ann Rev Phytopathol 24:411–451, 1986.
Bellinck C: Chemical study of Penicillium and Trichoderma pigments. Ann Microbiol 2:131–142, 1975.
Beneke ES, Rogers AL: Medical Mycology Manual with Human Mycoses Monograph, (4th ed). Minneapolis, Burgess Publishing, 1980.
Benes SE, Ritchie DF: Evidence for increased malanin content in dicarboximideresistant strains of Moniliniafructicola. Phytopathology 74 (abstract A697): 877, 1984.
Benitez T, Villa TG, Acha IG: Some chemical and structural features of the conidial wall of Trichoderma viride. Can J Microbiol 22:318–321, 1976.
Beresky MA, Hall DW: The influence of phenylthiourea on encapsulation, melanization, and survival in larvae of the mosquito Aedes aegypti parasitized by the nematode Neoaplectana carpocapsae. J Invert Pathol 29:74–80, 1977.
Blois MS Jr: Physical studies of the melanins, In Kawamura T, Fitzpatrick TB, Seiji M (eds): Biology of Normal and Abnormal Melanocytes. Tokyo, University of Tokyo Press, 1971, 125–139.
Blois MS Jr: The melanins: Their synthesis and structure. Photochem Photobiol Rev 3:115–134, 1978.
Blois MS Jr, Taskovich L: The reversible binding of some aromatic and cyclic compounds to biopolymers in vitro. J Invest Dermatol 53:344–350, 1969.
Bloomfield BJ, Alexander M: Melanins and resistance of fungi to lysis. J Bacteriol 93:1276–1280, 1967.
Boekelheide K, Graham DG, Mize PD, Anderson CW, Jeffs PW: Synthesis of y-L-Glutaminyl-[3,5-3H] 4-hydroxybenzene and the study of reactions catalyzed by the tyrosinase of Agaricus bisporus. J Biol Chem 254:12185–12191, 1979.
Buchenauer H, Zeun R, Schinzer U: Effect of tricyclazole on mycelium growth as well as on development and pigmentation of scelorotia of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. Z Pflanzenkr Pflanzenschutz 92:17–26, 1985.
Bull AT: Chemical composition of wild-type and mutant Aspergillus nidulans cell walls. The nature of polysaccharide and melanin constituents. J Gen Microbiol 63:75–94, 1970.
Bull AT: Kinetics of cellulase inactivation by melanin. Enzymologia 39:333–347, 1970.
Bull AT: Inhibition of polysaccharases by melanin: Enzyme inhibition in relation to mycolysis. Arch Biochem Biophys 137:345–356, 1970.
Bull AT, Carter BLA: The isolation of tyrosinase from Aspergillus nidulans, its kinetic and molecular properties and some consideration of its activity in vivo. J Gen Microbiol 75:61–73, 1973.
Bu’Lock, J: Essays in Biosynthesis and Microbial Development. New York, Wiley and Sons, 1967. 3la. Bustamam M, Sisler HD: Effect of pentachloronitrobenzene, pentachloroaniline and albinism on epidermal penetration of appressoria of Pyricularia. Pestle Biochem Physiol (in press).
Butler MJ, Lachance M-A: Quantitative binding of azure A to melanin of the black yeast Phaeococcomyces. Exp My col 10:166–170, 1986.
Cameron DW, Sidell MD: 1,3,6,8,11,13-Hexachloro-4,10-dihydroxydinaphtho [2,1-6:1 2’-d] furan-5,9-dione. A polychloro quinone from green soils. Aust J Chem 31:1323–1333, 1978.
Campbell CK, Mulder JL: Skin and nail infection by Scytalidium hyalinum sp. nov. Sabouraudla 15:161–166, 1977.
Cantino EC, Horenstein EA: The role of ketoglutarate and polyphenol oxidase in the synthesis of melanin during morphogenesis in Blastocladiella emersonii. Physiol Plant 8:189–221, 1955.
Carley HE, Watson RD, Huber DM: Inhibition of pigmentation in Aspergillus niger by dime thy Isulfoxide. Can J Bot 45:1451–1453, 1967.
Carter BLA, Bull AT: Studies of fungal growth and intermediary carbon metabolism under steady and non-steady state conditions. Biotechnol Bioeng 11:785–804, 1969.
Chantarakul N: Subcutaneous cystic granuloma due to brown pigmented fungi (subcutaneous chromoblastomycosis) Report of 6 cases. J Med Assoc Thailand 54:953–958, 1971.
Chaskes S, Edberg SC, Singer JM: A DL-DOPA drop test for the identification of Cryptococcus neoformans. Mycopathologla 74:143–148, 1981.
Chaskes S, Tyndall RL: Pigment production by Cryptococcus neoformans from para- and ortho-diphenols: Effect of the nitrogen source. J Clln Microblol 1:509–514, 1975.
Chaskes S, Tyndall RL: Pigment production by Cryptococcus neofomans and other Cryptococcus species from aminophenols and diaminobenzenes. J Clln Microbiol 1:146–152, 1978.
Chaskes S, Tyndall RL: Pigmentation and autofluorescence of Cryptococcus species after growth on tryptophan and anthranilic acid media. Mycopathologia 64:105–112, 1978.
Chavin W: Mechanisms in the control of dermal pigment in fishes, In Fitzpatrick TB, Kukita A, Morikawa A, Seiji M, Sober AJ, Toda K (eds): Biology and Disease of Dermal Pigmentation. Tokyo, University of Tokyo Press, 1981, 345–362.
Chet I, Henis Y: Effect of catechol and disodium EDTA on melanin content of hyphal and sclerotial walls of Sclerotlum rolfsll Sacc. and the role of melanin in the susceptibility of these walls to β-(1,3)-glucanase and chitinase. Soil Biol Biochem 1:131–138, 1969.
Chida T, Sisler HD: Restoration of appressorial penetration ability with melanin precursors in Pyricularia oryzae treated with antipenetrants and in melanindeficient mutants. J Pesticide Scl 12:49–55, 1987.
Clutterbuck AJ: Absence of laccase from yellow-spored mutants of Aspergillus nldulans. J Gen Microbiol 70: 423-435, 1972.
Cooper LA, Gadd GM: Differentiation and melanin production in hyaline and pigmented strains of Mlcrodochlum bolleyl. Antonle van Leeuwenhoek 50:53–62, 1984.
Corrado ML, Kramer M, Cuirnnings M, Eng RH: Susceptibility of dematiaceous fungi to amphotericin B, miconazole, ketoconazole, flucytosine and rifampin alone and in combination. Sabouraudla 20:109–113, 1982.
Cutler JE, Swatek FE: Pigment production by Basidlobolus in the presence of tyrosine. Mycologla 61:130–135, 1969.
Davies JE, King FE, Roberts JC: The structure of flaviolin. Chem Ind No. 36, 1110–1111, 1954.
Dixon DM, Polak A: In vitro and in vivo drug studies with three agents of central nervous system phaeohyphomycosis. Chemotherapy 33:129–140, 1987.
Dixon DM, Polak A, Szaniszlo PJ: Pathogenicity and virulence of wild-type and melanin-deficient Wangiella dermatitidis. J Med Vet My col 25:97–106, 1987.
Dixon DM, Walsh TJ, Salkin IF, Polak A: Dactylaria constricta: Another dematiaceous fungus with neurotropic potential in mammals. J Med Vet My col 25:55–58, 1986.
Doherty MD, Cohen GM, Gant TW, Naish S, Riley PA: Metabolism of 1-naphthol by tyrosinase. Biochem Pharmacol 34:3167–3172, 1985.
Duckworth HW, Coleman JE: Physicochemical and kinetic properties of mushroom tyrosinase. J Biol Chem 245:1613–1625, 1970.
Durrell LW: The composition and structure of walls of dark fungus spores. Mycopathol My col Appl 23:339–345, 1964.
Edberg SC, Chaskes SJ, Alture-Werber E, Singer JM: Esculin-based medium for isolation and identification of Cryptococcus neoformans. J Clin Microbiol 12:332–335, 1980.
Ellis DH, Griffiths DA: The location and analysis of melanins in the cell walls of some soil fungi. Can J Microbiol 20:1379–1386, 1974.
Ellis DH, Griffiths DA: Melanin deposition in the hyphae of a species of Phomopsis. Can J Microbiol 21:442–452, 1975.
Farmer SG, Komorowski RA: Cutaneous microabscess formation from Alternaria alternata. Am J Clin Pathol 66:565–569, 1976.
Filip Z, Haider K, Beutelspacher H, Martin JP: Comparisons of IR-spectra from melanins of microscope soil fungi, humic acids and model phenol polymers. Geoderma 11:37–52, 1974.
Findlay GH, Vismer HF: Black grain mycetoma. A study of the chemistry, formation and significance of the tissue grain in Madurella mycetomi infection. Br J Dermatol 91:297–303, 1974.
Findlay GH, Vismer HF, Liebenberg NvdW: Black grain mycetoma: The ultrastructure of Madurella mycetomi . Mycopathologia 67:51–54, 1979.
Findlay JA, Kwan D: Metabolites from a Scytalidium species. Can J Chem 51:3299–3301, 1973.
Findlay JA, Kwan D: Scytalone (3,6,8-trihydroxytetralone), a metabolite from a Scytalidium species. Can J Chem 51:1617–1619, 1973.
Fitzpatrick TB, Kukita A, Morikawa F, Seiji M, Sober AJ, Toda K, (eds): Biology and Diseases of Dermal Pigmentation. Tokyo, University of Tokyo Press, 1981.
Fitzpatrick TB, Lerner AB, Nordlund JJ, Anderson RR, Szabo G, et al: Introduction to dermal pigment biology and dermal pigmentary disorders (Ceruloderma): Significance, physical basis, cytologic and biochemical basis, In Fitzpatrick TB et al (eds): Biology and Diseases of Dermal Pigmentation. Tokyo, University of Tokyo Press, 1981, 3–18.
Fleming WH, Hopkins JM, Land GA: New culture medium for the presumptive identification of Candida albicans and Cryptococcus neoformans. J Clin Microbiol 5:236–243, 1977.
Fling M, Horowitz NH, Heinemann SF: The isolation and properties of crystalline tyrosinase from Neurospora. J Biol Chem 238:2045–2052, 1963.
Friis J, Ottolenghi P: Pigment formation by the "black yeast" Phialophora jeanselmii. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek Yeast Symp 35(suppl):H13–14, 1969.
Fromtling RA, Shadomy HJ, Jacobson ES: Decreased virulence in stable, acapsular mutants of Cryptococcus neoformans. Mycopathologia 79:23–29, 1982.
Fuste FJ, Ajello L, Threlkeld R, Henry JE Jr: Drechslera hawatiensis: Causative agent of a fatal fungal meningo-encephalitis. Sabouraudia 11:59–63, 1973.
Gadd GM: Melanin production and differentiation in batch cultures of the polymorphic fungus, Aureobasidium pullulans . FEMS Microbiol Lett 9:237–240, 1980.
Gafoor A, Heale JB: Melanin formation and peroxidase activity in Verticillium. Microbios3:87–95, 1971.
Garau J, Diamond RD, Lagrotteria LB, Kabins SA: Alternaria osteomyelitis. Ann Intern Med 86:747–748, 1977.
Geis PA, Szaniszlo PJ: Carotenoid pigments of the dematiaceous fungus Wangiella dermatitidis. Mycologia 76:268–273, 1984.
Geis PA, Wheeler MH, Szaniszlo PJ: Pentaketide metabolites of melanin synthesis in the dematiaceous fungus Wangiella dermatitidis. Arch Microbiol 137:324–328,1984.
Gentles JC, Evans EG: Infection of the feet and nails with Hendersonula toruloidea. Sabouraudia 8:72–75, 1970.
Gerber NN, Wieclawek B: The structures of two naphthoquinone pigments from an actinomycete. J Org Chem 31:1496–1498, 1966.
Geremia E, Corsaro C, Bonomo R: Eumelanins as free radicals trap and superoxide dismutase activities in amphibia. Comp Biochem Physiol 79:67–69, 1984.
Ghani HM, Lancaster JH, Larsh HW: Genetic analysis of pigmentation in Arthroderma benhamiae. J Gen Microbiol 84:205–208, 1974.
Gordon MA, Salkin IF, Stone WB: Phoma (Peyronellaea) as zoopathogen. Sabouraudia 13:329–333, 1975.
Greenblatt GA, Wheeler MH: HPLC analysis of fungal melanin intermediates and related metabolites. J Liquid Chromatogr 9:971–981, 1986.
Haars A, Huttermann A: Function of laccase in the white-rot fungus Fomes annosus. Arch Microbiol 125:233–237, 1980.
Ha-Huy-Ke, Luckner M: Structure and function of the conidiospore pigments of Pencillium cyclopium. Z Allg Mikrobiol 19:117–122, 1979.
Haider K, Martin JP: Synthesis and transformation of phenolic compounds by Epicoccum nigrum in relation to humic acid formation. Soil Sci Soc Am Proc 31:766–771, 1967.
Harris R, Smith RE, Wood TR, Biddle M: Helminthosporium corneal ulcers. Ann Ophthalmol 10:729–733, 1978.
Heale JB, Isaac I: Dark pigment formation in Verticillium albo-atrum. Nature 202:412–413, 1964.
Healy ME, Dillavou CL, Taylor GE: Diagnostic medium containing inositol, urea, and caffeic acid for selective growth of Cryptococcus neformans. J Clin Microbiol 6:387–391, 1977.
Hegnauer H, Nyhlen LE, Rast DM: Ultrastructure of native and synthetic Agaricus bisporus melanins—implications as to the compartmentation of melanogenesis in fungi. Exp My col 9:221–229, 1985.
Hemingway RW, McGraw GW, Barras SJ: Polyphenols in Ceratocystis minor infected Pinus taeda: Fungal metabolites, phloem and xylem phenols. J Agric Food Chem 25:717–722, 1977.
Hermann TE, Kurtz MB, Champe SP: Laccase localized in hulle cells and cleistothecial primordia of Aspergillus nidulans. J Bacterial 154:955–964, 1983.
Hignett RC, Kirkham DS: The role of extracellular melanoproteins of Venturia inaequalis in host susceptability. J Gen Microbiol 48:269–275, 1967.
Hignett RC, Roberts AL, Carder JH: The properties of extracellular enzymes of Venturia inaequalis and their association with loss of virulence of the fungus in culture. J Gen Microbiol 110:67–75, 1979.
Hignett RC, Roberts AL, Carder JH: Melanoprotein and virulence determinants of Venturia inaequalis. Physiol Plant Pathol 24:321–330, 1984.
Hironaga M, Watanabe S: Studies on the genera Arthroderma-Trichophyton. Jpn J Med Mycol 18:l6l–168, 1977.
Hollis JP : Studies on Streptomyces scabies. I. Variability in a melanin-indicator medium. Phytopathology 42:273–276, 1952.
Hopfer RL, Blank F: Caffeic acid-containing medium for identification of Cryptococcus neoformans. J Clin Microbiol 2:115–120, 1975.
Hopfer RL, Groschel D: Six-hour pigmentation test for the identification of Cryptococcus neoformans. J Clin Microbiol 2:96–98, 1975.
Horowitz NH, Fling M, Macleod HL, Watanabe Y: Structural and regulative genes controlling tyrosinase synthesis in Neurospora. Cold Spring Harbor Symp Quant Biol 26:233–238, 1961.
Howard DH, Dabrowa N: Mutants of Arthroderma benhamiae. Sabouraudia 17:35–50, 1979.
Hunt GA, Fogel R: Fungal hyphal dynamics in a western Oregon Douglas-fir stand. Soil Biol Biochem 15:641–649, 1983.
Hurst HM, Wagner GH: Decomposition of 14C-labeled cell wall and cytoplasmic fractions rom hyaline and melanic fungi. Soil Sci Soc Am Proc 33:707–711, 1969.
Ikeda R, Shinoda T, Kagaya K, Fukazawa Y: Role of serum factors in the phagocytosis of weakly or heavily encapsulated Cryptococcus neoformans strains by guinea pig peripheral blood leukocytes. Microbiol Immunol 28:51–61, 1984.
Imshenetsky AA, Lysenko SV, Kazokov GA: Upper boundary of the biosphere. Appl Environ Microbiol 35:1–5, 1978.
Ings RMJ: The melanin binding of drugs and its implications. Drug Metab Rev 15:1183–1212, 1984.
Inoue S, Maeda K, Uematsu T, Kato T: Comparison of tetrachlorophthalide and pentachlorobenzyl alcohol with chlobenthiazone and other melanin inhibitors in the mechanism of rice blast control, J Pesticide Sci 9:731 -761, 1984.
Ito Y, Nanba H, Kuroda H: Melanin produced by Cochliobolus miyabeanus I. The physical and chemical properties. Yakugaku Zasshi 99:1027–1030, 1979.
Ito Y, Nanba H, Kuroda, H: Melanin produced by Cohliobolus miyabeanus. II. Gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric analysis of the degradation products by alkaline fusion. Yakugaku Zasshi 99:971–975, 1979.
Ivins BE, Holmes RK: Isolation and characterization of melanin-producing (mel) mutants of Vibrio cholerae. Infect Immun 27:721–736, 1980.
Ivins BE, Holmes RK: Factors affecting phaeomelanin production by a melaninproducing (mel) mutant of Vibrio cholerae. Infect Immun 34:895–899, 1981.
Iwasaki S, Muro H, Nozoe S, Okuda S: Isolation of 3,4-dihydro-3,4,8-trihydroxy-l(2H)-naphthalenone and tenuazonic acid from Pyricularia oryzae Cavara. Tetrahedron Lett No. l,13-16, 1972.
Iwasaki S, Muro H, Sasaki K, Nozoe S, Okuda S: Isolations of phytotoxic substances produced by Pyricularia oryzae Cavara. Tetrahedron Lett No. 37, 3537–3542, 1973.
Jackson GVH, Gay JL: Perennation of Sphaerotheca mors-uvae as cleistothecia with particular reference to microbiol activity. Trans Br My col Soc 66:463–471, 1976.
Kaufmann CS, Merz WG: Two rapid pigmentation tests for identification of Cryptococcus neoformans. J Clin Microbiol 15:339–341, 1982.
Kaufman SM: Curvularia endocarditis following cardiac surgery. Am J Clin Pathol 56:466–470, 1971.
Keilin D, Mann T: Polyphenol oxidase: purification, nature and properties. Proc Roy Soc B 125:187–204, 1938.
Koenigs JW: Production of extracellular hydrogen peroxide and peroxidase by wood-rotting fungi. Phytopathology 62:100–110, 1972.
Kohno M, Ishizaki H, Lin P-H, Yamamori K, Kunoh H: Effect of polyoxin on fungi. (IX). Ultrastructural and cytochemical analyses of polyoxin-treated hyphae of Alternaria kikuchiana Tanaka. Ann Phytopathol Soc Jpn 49:38–46, 1983.
Korner A, Pawelek J: Mammalian tyrosinase catalyzes three reactions in the biosynthesis of melanin. Science 217:1163–1165, 1982.
Kozlova TM, Lyakh SP: Morphological and ultrastructural features of the black yeast Nadsoniella nigra var. psychrophilica. Microbiology USSR 50:198–202, 1981.
Krachmer JH, Anderson RL, Binder PS, Waring GO, Rowsey JJ, Meek ES: Helminthosporium corneal ulcers. Am J Ophthalmol 85:666–670, 1978.
Kubo Y, Furusawa I: Localization of melanin in appressoria of Colletotrichum lagenarium. Can J Microbiol 32:280–283, 1986.
Kubo Y, Suzuki K, Furusawa I, Yamamoto M: Effect of tricyclazole on appressorial pigmentation and penetration from appressoria of Colletotrichum lagenarium. Phytopathology 72:1198–1200, 1982.
Kubo Y, Suzuki K, Furusawa I, Yamamoto M: Scytalone as a natural intermediate of melanin biosynthesis in appressoria of Colletotrichum lagenarium. Exp Mycol 7:208–2l5, 1983.
Kubo Y, Suzuki K, Furusawa I, Yamamoto M: Melanin biosynthesis as a prerequisite for penetration by appressoria of Colletotrichum lagenarium: Site of inhibition by melanin-inhibiting fungicides and their action on appressoria. Pestic Biochem Physiol 23:47–55, 1985.
Kuo M-J, Alexander M: Inhibition of the lysis of fungi by melanins. J Bacteriol 94:624–629, 1967.
Kurtz MB, Champe SP: Dominant spore color mutants of Aspergillus nidulans defective in germination and sexual development. J Bacteriol 148:629–638, 1981.
Kurtz MB, Champe SP: Purification and characterization of the conidial laccase of Aspergillus nidulans. J Bacteriol 151:1338–1345, 1982.
Kwon-Chung KJ, Bennett JE, Rhodes JC: Taxonomic studies on Filobasidiella species and their anamorphs. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 48:25–38, 1982.
Kwon-Chung KH, Polacheck I, Popkin TJ: Melanin-lacking mutants of Cryptococcus neoformans and their virulence for mice. J Bacteriol 150:1414–1421, 1982.
Kwon-Chung KH, Rhodes JC: Encapsulation and melanin formation as indicators of virulence in Cryptococcus neoformans. Infect Immun 51:218–223, 1986.
Kwon-Chung KJ, Tom WK, Costa JL: Utilization of indole compounds by Cryptococcus neoformans to produce a melanin-like pigment. J Clin Microbiol 18:1419–1421,1983.
Lampert RP, Hutto JH, Donnelly WH, Shulman ST: Pulmonary and cerebral mycetoma caused by Curvularia pallescens. J Pediatr 91:603–605, 1977.
Land GA, Dorn GL, Fleming WH, Beadles TA, Foxworth JH: Isolation and rapid identification of yeasts from compromised hosts. Mycopathologia 65: 123–131, 1978.
Lazarovits G, Stoessl A: Tricyclazole inhibition of melanin and altersolanol A formation in Alternaria solani. Abst 6th Internal Cong of Pestic Chem, Ottawa, 1986,P2F–14.
Lerch K: Neurospora tyrosinase: Structural, spectroscopic and catalytic properties. Mol Cell Biochem 52:125–138, 1983.
Lillie RD: Histochemistry of melanins, In Wolman M (ed):Pigments in Pathology. New York, Academic Press, 1969, 327–351.
Linderman RG, Toussoun TA: Behavior of albino chlamydospores of Thielaviopsis basicola. Phytopathology 56:887, 1966.
Lingappa Y, Sussman AS, Bernstein I A: Effect of light and media upon growth and melanin formation in Aureobasidium pullulans (DeBary) Arn. (= Pullularia pullulans). Mycopathol Mycol Appl 20:109–l28, 1963.
Linhares LF, Martin JP: Decomposition in soil of the humic acid-type polymers (melanins) ofEurotium echinulatum, Aspergillus glaucus sp. and other fungi. Soil Sci Soc Am J43:738–743, 1978.
Linhares LF, Martin JP: Carbohydrate content of fungal humic acid-type polymers (melanins). Soil Sci Soc Am J43:313–318, 1979.
Linhares LF, Martin JP: Decomposition in soil of emodin, chrysophanic acid, and a mixture of anthraquinones synthesized by an Aspergillus glaucus isolate. Soil Sci Soc Am J43:940–945, 1979.
Lockwood JL: Lysis of mycelium of plant-pathogenic fungi by natural soil. Phytopathology 50:787–789, 1960.
Lukiewicz S, Ablewicz E: EPR studies on the radioprotective role of melanins. Radial Res 59:220–221, 1974.
Luther JP, Lipke H: Degradation of melanin by Aspergillus fumigatus. Appl Environ Microbiol 40:145–155, 1980.
Malmstrom BG, Ryden L: The copper-containing oxidases, In Singer TP (ed):Biological Oxidations, New York, Interscience, 1968, 415–438.
Mariat F, Liautaud B, Liautaud M, Marill F-G: Rendersonula toruloidea, agent d’une dermatite verruqueuse mycosique observee en Algerie. Sabouraudia 16:133–140, 1978.
Marr CD: Laccase and tyrosinase oxidation of spot test reagents. Mycotaxon 9:244–276,1979.
Marr CD: Spot tests for detection of tyrosinase. Mycotaxon 19:299–305, 1984.
Marsden CD: Brain melanin, In Wolman M (ed):Pigments in Pathology. New York, Academic Press, 395–420.
Martin JP, Haider K: Phenolic polymers of Stachybotrys atra, Stachybotrys chartarum, and Epicoccum nigrum in relation to humic acid formation. Soil Sci 107:260–270, 1969.
Martin JP, Haider K: A comparison of the use of phenolase and peroxidase for the synthesis of model humic acid-type polymers. Soil Sci Soc Am J 44:983–988, 1980.
Martin JP, Haider K, Bondietti E: Properties of model humic acids synthesized by phenoloxidase and autoxidation of phenols and other compounds formed by soil fungi in Proc Int Meet Humic Substances. Pudoc, Nieuwersluis, 1972, 171–186.
Martin JP, Haider K, Linhares LF: Decomposition and stabilization of ring-14C-labeled catechol in soil. Soil Sci Soc Am J43:100–104, 1979.
Martin JP, Haider K, Wolf D: Synthesis of phenols and phenolic polymers by Hendersonula toruloidea in relation to humic acid formation. Soil Sci Soc Am Proc 36:311–315, 1972.
Mason HS : The chemistry of melanin. III. Mechanism of the oxidation of dihydroxyphenylalanine by tyrosinase. J Biol Chem 172:83–99, 1948.
Matsumoto T, Padhye AA, Ajello L, Standard PG, McGinnis MR: Critical review of human isolates of Wangiella dermatitidis. Mycologia 76:232–249,1984.
Matsuura K: Effect of melanin synthesis inhibitors on appressorial function in plant pathogenic fungi. J Pesticide Sci 8:379–383, 1983.
Mayer AM, Harel E: Polyphenol oxidases in plants. Phytochemistry 18:193–215, 1979.
McGinness J, Corry P, Proctor P: Amorphous semiconductor switching in melanins. Science 183:854–855, 1974.
McGinness JE: Mobility gaps: A mechanism for band gaps in melanins. Science 177:896–897, 1972.
McGinnis MR: Chromoblastomycosis and phaeohyphomycosis: New concepts, diagnosis, and mycology. J Am Acad Dermatol 8:1–16, 1983.
McGinnis MR: Helminthosporium corneal ulcers. Am J Opthalmol 86:853, 1978.
McGinnis MR: Laboratory Handbook of Medical Mycology. New York, Academic Press, 1980.
McGinnis MR, Borelli D, Padhye AA, Ajello L: Reclassification of Cladosporium bantianum in the genus Xylohypha. J Clin Microbiol 23:1148–1151, 1986.
McGinnis MR, Buck DL, Katz B: Paranasal aspergilloma caused by an albino variant of Aspergillusfumigatus. South Med 770:886–888, 1977.
McGinnis MR, Rinaldi MG, Winn RE: Emerging agents of phaeohyphomycosis: Pathogenic species of Bipolaris and Exserohilum. J Clin Microbiol 24: 250–259, 1986.
McGinnis MR, Sorell DF, Miller RL, Kaminski GW: Subcutaneous phaeohyphomycosis caused by Exophiala moniliae. Mycopathologia 73:69–72, 1981.
McGovern EP, Bentley R: Biosynthesis of flaviolin and 5,8-dihydroxy-2,7-dimethoxy-l,4-napthoquinone. Biochemistry 14:3138–3143, 1975.
McGraw GW, Hemingway RW: 6,8-Dihydroxy-3-hydroxymethyl-isocoumarin, and other phenolic metabolites of Ceratocystis minor. Phytochemistry 16:1315–1316, 1977.
Mekalanos JJ, Sublett RD, Ronig WR: Genetic mapping of toxin regulatory mutations in Vibrio cholerae. J Bacteriol 139:859–865, 1979.
Melezhik AV: Electron tunneling between photo-induced paramagnetic centres in melanin pigment. Biophysics 25:247–251, 1980.
Mendoza CG, Leal JA, Novaes-Ledieu M: Studies of the spore walls ofAgaricus bisporus and Agaricus campestris. Can J Microbiol 25:32–39, 1979.
Menon I A, Persad S, Ranadive NS, Haberman HF: Role of superoxide and hydrogen peroxide in cell lysis during irradiation in vitro of Ehrlich ascitic carcinoma cells in the presence of melanin. Can JBiochem Cell Biol63:278–283, 1985.
Merz WG, Lloyd KO, Silva-Hunter M: Characterization of a Trichophyton mentagrophytes and its diffusible pigment. Sabouraudia 10:86–93, 1972.
Meyers WM, Dooley JR, Kwon-Chung KJ: Mycotic granuloma caused by Phialophora repens. Am J Clin Pathol 64:549–555, 1975.
Mirchink TG, Kashkina GB, Abatwrov YuD: The resistance of fungi with various pigments to y-radiation. Microbiology USSR 41:67–69, 1972.
Morison WL: What is the function of melanin? Arch Dermatol 121:1160–1163, 1985.
Morita T, Aoki H: Isosclerone, a new metabolite of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) De Bary. Agr Biol Chem 38:1501–1505, 1974.
Nelson RM, Mason HS: Tyrosinase (mushroom), In Tabor H and Tabor CW (eds): Methods in Enzymology, Vol XVIIA. New York, Academic Press, 1970, 626–632.
Nicolaus RA, Piattelli M: Progress in the Chemistry of natural black pigments. Rend Acad Sci Fis Mat Naples Ser 32:83–97, 1965.
Nicolaus RA, Piattelli M, Fattorusso E: The structure of melanins and melanogenesis-IV: On some natural melanins. Tetrahedron 20:1163–1172, 1964.
Niebauer G: Dendritic cells of human skin, in Experimental and Biological Medicine, Vol. 2. Basel, Karger, 1968.
Nurudeen TA, Ahearn DG: Regulation of melanin production by Cryptococcus neoformans. J Clin Microbiol 10:724–729, 1979.
Okuno T, Kitamura Y, Matsuura K: Mechanism of inhibitory effect of tricyclazole on secondary infection by spores of Pyricularia oryzae. J Pesticide Sci 8:361–362, 1983.
Okuno T, Matsuura K, Furusawa I: Recovery of appressorial penetration by some melanin precursors in Pyricularia oryzae treated with tricyclazole and in a melanin deficient mutant. J Pesticide Sci 8:357–360, 1983.
Okuno T, Natsume I, Sawai K, Sawamura K, Furusaki A, Matsumato T: Structure of antifungal and phy to toxic pigments produced by Alternaria spp. Tetrahedron Lett 24:5653–5656, 1983.
Old KM, Robertson WM: Effects of lytic enzymes and natural soil on the fine structure of conidia of Cochliobolus sativus. Trans Br Mycol Soc 54:343–350, 1970.
Old KM, Robertson WM: Growth of bacteria within lysing fungal conidia in soil. Trans Br Mycol Soc 54:337–341, 1970.
Omura S: The antibiotic cerulenin, a novel tool for biochemistry as an inhibitor of fatty acid synthesis. Bacteriol Rev 40:681–697, 1976.
Paliwal DK, Randhawa HS: A rapid pigmentation test for identification of Cryptococcus neoformans. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 44:243–246, 1978.
Paliwal DK, Randhawa HS: Evaluation of a simplified Guizotia abyssinica seed medium for differentiation of Cryptococcus neoformans. J Clin Microbiol 7:346–348, 1978.
Pavlenko GV, Loitsyanskaya MS, Nemirovskaya NI: Melanin pigment of Gluconobacter oxydans. Microbiology USSR 50:539–542, 1982.
Pawelek JM, Korner AM: The biosynthesis of mammalian melanin. Am Sci 70:136–145, 1982.
Pechak DG, Crang RE: Observations on melanin synthesis in the black yeast Aureobasidiumpullulans. Micron 10:207–208, 1979.
Piattelli M, Fattorusso E, Magno S, Nicolaus RA: Ustilago melanin, a naturally occurring catechol melanin. Tetrahedron Lett No. 15, 997–998, 1963.
Piattelli M, Fattorusso E, Nicolaus RA, Magno S: The structure of melanins and melanogensis-V. Ustilagomelanin. Tetrahedron 21:3229–3236, 1965.
Poinar GO: Arthropod immunity to worms, In Jackson GJ, Herman RA, Singer I (eds): Immunity to Parasitic Animals. New York, Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1969, 173–210.
Polacheck I, Hearing VJ, Kwon-Chung KJ: Biochemical studies of phenoloxidase and utilization of catecholamines in Cryptococcus neoformans. J Bacteriol 150:1212–1220, 1982.
Polacheck I, Rosenberger RF: Aspergillus nidulans mutant lacking a-(l,3)-glucan, melanin, and cleistothecia. J Bacteriol 132:650–656, 1977.
Potgieter HJ, Alexander M: Susceptibility and resistance of several fungi to microbial lysis. J Bacteriol 91: 1526–1532, 1966.
Prabhakaran K: Biochemical studies on Mycobacterium leprae. J Basic Microbiol 26:2:117–126, 1986.
Prabhakaran K, Harris EB, Kirchheimer WF: Effect of inhibitors on phenoloxidase of Mycobacterium leprae. J Bacteriol 100:935–938, 1969.
Prabhakaran K, Harris EB, Kirchheimer WF: The nature of the phenolase enzyme in Mycobacterium leprae: Structure-activity relationships of substrates and comparison with other copper proteins and enzymes. Microbios 5:273–281, 1972.
Prabhakaran K, Harris EB, Kirchheimer WF: Hypopigmentation of skin lesions in leprosy and occurrence of 0-diphenoloxidase in Mycobacterium leprae, In Biley V (ed): Pigment Cell, Vol. 3. Basel, Karger, 1976, 152–164.
Prabhakaran K, Harris EB, Kirchheimer WF: Confirmation of the spot test for the identification of Mycobacterium leprae and occurrence of tissue inhibitors of DOPA oxidation. Lepr Rev 48:49–52, 1977.
Prabhakaran K, Harris EB, Kirchheimer WF: Failure to detect o-diphenoloxidase in cultivable mycobacteria obtained from feral armadillos. Lepr Rev 51:341–349, 1980.
Pridham JB, Woodhead S: The biosynthesis of melanin in Alternaria. Phytochemistry 16:903–906, 1977.
Proctor PH, McGinness JE: The function of melanin. Arch Dermatol 122:507–508, 1986.
Puhalla JE, Bell AA: Genetics and biochemistry of wilt pathogens, In Mace ME, Bell AA, Beckman CH (eds): Fungal Wilt Disease of Plants. New York, Academic, 1981, 145–192.
Pulverer G, Korth H: Cryptococcus neoformans: Pigmentbildung aus verschiedenen polyphenolen. Med Microbiol Immunol 157:46–51, 1971.
Quevedo WC: Physiology of vertebrate pigmentation, In Fitzpatrick TB, et al (eds): Biology and Diseases of Dermal Pigmentation. Tokyo, University of Tokyo Press, 1981, 39–50.
Ramberg JE, McLaughlin DJ: Ultrastructural study of promycelial development and basidiospore initiation in Ustilago maydis. Can J Bot 58:1548–1561, 1980.
Raper KB, Fennell DI: The Genus Aspergillus. Baltimore, Williams and Wilkins, 1965, p 686.
Rast DM, Stussi H, Hegnauer H, Nyhlen LE: Melanins, In Turian G, Hohl HR (eds): The Fungal Spore: Morphogenetic Controls. New York, Academic Press, 1981, 507–531.
Ray AC, Eakin RE: Studies on the biosynthesis of aspergillin by Aspergillus niger. Appl Microbiol 30:909–915, 1975.
Reiss E, Nickerson WJ: Characterization of two melanins produced by Phialophora verrucosa. Sabouraudia 12:193–201, 1971.
Rhodes JC, Howard DH: Isolation and characterization of arginine auxotrophs of Cryptococcus neoformans. Infect Immun 27:910–914, 1980.
Rhodes JC, Polacheck I, Kwon-Chung KJ: Phenoloxidase activity and virulence in isogenic strains of Cryptococcus neoformans. Infect Immun 36:1175–1184, 1982.
Rippon JW: Medical Mycology. The Pathogenic Fungi and the Pathogenic Actinomycetes, (2nd ed). Philadelphia, WB Saunders, 1982.
Rippon JW, Garber D: Dermatophyte infection as a function of mating type and associated enzymes. J Invest Dermatol 53:445–448, 1969.
Robeson D, Strobel G, Matusumoto GK, Fisher EL, Chen MH, Clardy J: Alteichin: An unusual phy to toxin from Alternaria eichorniae, a fungal pathogen of water hyacinth. Experientia 40:1248–1250, 1984.
Rohwedder JJ, Simmons JL, Colfer H, Gatmaitan B: Disseminated Curvularia lunata infection in a football player. Arch Intern Med 139:940–941, 1979.
Rowley BI, Bull AT: Influence of growth rate history on production of melanin by Aspergillus nidulans. Trans Br My col Soc 70:453–455, 1978.
Ruban EL, Liakh SP, Volkova-Kozlova TM: Nadsoniella nigra mutant synthesizing extracell melanin. Biol Bull Acad Sci USSR 2:283–285, 1969.
Russell JD, Vaughan D, Jones D, Fraser AR: An IR spectroscopic study of soil humin and its relationship to other soil humic substances and fungal pigments. Geoderma 29:1–12, 1983.
Saiz-Jimenez C, Haider K, Martin JP: Anthraquinones and phenols as inter mediates in the formation of dark colored, humic acid-like pigments by Eurotium echinulatum. Soil Sci Soc Am Proc 39:649–653, 1975.
Saiz-Jimenez C, Martin F, Cert A: Low bioling-point compounds produced by pyrolysis of fungal melanins and model phenolic polymers. Soil Biol Biochem 11:305–310, 1979.
Salkin IF, Martinez JA, Kemna ME: Opportunistic infection of the spleen caused by Aureobasidium pullulans. J Clin Microbiol 23:828–831, 1986.
Sankawa U, Shimada H, Sato T, Kinoshita T, Yamasaki K: Biosynthesis of scytalone. Tetrahedron Lett 1977, 483-486.
Sankawa U, Shimada H, Sato T, Kinoshita T, Yamasaki K: Biosynthesis of scytalone. Chem Pharm Bull 29:3536–3542, 1981.
Schaeffer P: A black mutant ofNeurospora crassa. Mode of action of the mutant allele and action of light on melanogenesis. Arch Biochem Biophys 47:359–379, 1953.
Schnitzer M, Neyroud JA: Further investigations on the chemistry of fungal "humic acids." Soil Biol Biochem 7:365–371, 1975.
Schonborn C: Dermatophytes with melanoid pigment. 1. Communication: Investigation on the frequency of pigment-forming fungal stains and the intensity of their pigment production. Z Gesamte Hyg Grenzgeb 17:773–778, 1971.
Schonborn C, Schuhmann P: Dermatophytes with melanoid pigment 2. Communication: contribution on biology of pigment-forming fungal strains. Z Gesamte Hyg Grenzgeb 17:779–784, 1971.
Seiji M: Biology of dermal melanin, In Fitzpatrick TB, et al (eds): Biology and Diseases of Dermal Pigmentation. Tokyo, Tokyo University Press, 1981, 21–38.
Seredyuk LS, Yurchak LD: Allelopathic effect of melanins of Stachybotrys alternans. Prikl Biokhim Mikrobiol 7:174–177, 1971.
Seto H, Yonehara H: Utilization of 13C-13C coupling in structural and biosynthetic studies. VIII. The cyclization pattern of a fungal metabolite, scytalone. Tetrahedron Lett No. 5, 487–488, 1977.
Shaw CE, Kapica L: Production of diagnostic pigment by phenoloxidase activity of Cryptococcus neoformans. Appl Microbiol 24:824–830, 1972.
Shevtsova VM : Genetics of the cotton wilt pathogen Verticillium dahliae Kleb IV. Complementation analysis of the melanin-deficient mutants of Verticillium dahliae Kleb. Sov Genet 18:1500–1505, 1982.
Shevtsova VM, Kas’yaneko AG, Ten LN, Stepanichenko NN, Samoilov GG: Genetics of the cotton wilt pathogen, Verticillium dahliae Kleb III. Use of biochemical genetic methods to study melanin synthesis in Verticillium dahliae . Sov Genet 18:1391–1401, 1982.
Shevtsova, VM, Ten LN, Stepanichenko NN: Genetical and biochemical studies of melanogenesis in Verticillium tricorpus and Verticillium nigrescens. Genetika 20:1968–1973, 1984.
Shmyun MP, Zhdanova NM, Svyshchuk AA: Affinity of dark pigment of Oidiodendron cerealis to melanins. Mikrobiol Zh Kiev 37:700–702, 1975.
Siehr DJ: Melanin biosynthesis in Aureobasidium pullulans. J Coat Tech 53:23–25, 1981.
Simon LT, Bishop DS, Hooper GR: Ultrastructure and cytochemical localization of laccase in two strains of Leptosphaerulina briosiana (Pollaci) Graham and Luttrell. J Bacteriol 137:537–544, 1979.
Simpson TJ: The biosynthesis of polyketides. Nat Prod Rep 1:321–349, 1985.
Sisler HD: Control of fungal diseases by compounds acting as antipenetrants. Crop Prot 5:306–313, 1986.
Sisler HD, Woloshuk CP, Wolkow PM: Studies on the mode of action of tricyclazole and related compounds, In Lyr H, Polter C (eds): Systemische Fungizide und Antifungale Verbindungen. Berlin, Akademie-Verlag, 1983, 171–176.
Sisler HD, Woloshuk CP, Wolkow PM: Specific chemical regulation of appressorial function. Tagungsber Akad Landwirtschaftswiss. DDR 222:17–28, 1984.
Sjoblad RD, Minard RD, Bollag JM: Polymerization of 1-naphthol and related phenolic compounds by an extracellular fungal enzyme. Pestic Biochem Physiol 6:457–463, 1976.
Slawinska D, Slawinski J, Sarna T: Photoinduced luminescence and EPR signals of polyphenol and quinone polymers. Photochem Photobiol 21:393–396, 1975.
Soga O: Stimulative production of flaviolin by Phoma wasabiae. Agric Biol Chem 46:1061–1063, 1982.
Sorokin DYu, Bab’eva IP: Lysis of natural yeast populations by soil microorganisms. Microbiology USSR 51:275–278, 1982.
Staib F : Cryptococcus neoformans and Guizotia abyssinica (Syn G. oleifera). Z Hyg Infektionskr 148:466–475, 1962.
Stipanovic RD, Bell AA: Pentaketide metabolites of Verticillium dahliae. 3. Identification of ( —)-3,4-dihydro-3,8-dihydroxy-l(2//)-naphthalenone [( —)-vermelone] as a precursor to melanin. J Org Chem 41:2468–2469, 1976.
Stipanovic RD, Bell A A: Pentaketide metabolites of Verticillium dahliae. II. Accumulation of naphthol derivatives by the aberrant-melanin mutant brm-2 . Mycologia 69:164–172, 1977.
Stipanovic RD, Wheeler MH: Accumulation of 3,3’-biflaviolin, a melanin shunt product, by tricyclazole-treated Thielaviopsis basicola. Pestic Biochem Physiol 13:198–201, 1980.
Stott DE, Martin JP, Focht DD, Haider K: Biodegradation, stabilization in humus, and incorporation into soil biomass of 2,4-D and chlorocatechol carbons. Soil Sci Soc Am J 41:66–70, 1983.
Strachan AA, Yu RJ, Blank F: Pigment production of Cryptococcus neoformans grown with extracts of Guizotia abyssinica. Appl Microbiol 22:478–479, 1971.
Stussi H, Rast DM: The biosynthesis and possible function of y-glutaminyl-4-hydroxybenzene in Agaricus bisporus. Phytochemistry 20:2347–2352, 1981.
Sussman AS: Longevity and survivability of fungi, In Ainsworth GC, Sussman AS (eds):The Fungi, Vol. 3. New York, Academic Press, 1968, 447–486.
Suzuki K, Kubo Y, Furusawa I, Ishida N, Yamamoto M: Behavior of colorless appressoria in an albino mutant of Colletotrichum lagenarium. Can J Microbiol 28:1210–1213, 1982.
Swan GA: Structure, chemistry, and biosynthesis of the melanins. Fortschr Chem Organ Natur 31:521–582, 1973.
Szaniszlo PJ, Geis PA, Jacobs CW, Cooper CR, Harris JL: Cell wall changes associated with yeast-to-multicellular form conversion in Wangiella dermatitidis, In Schlessinger D (ed): Microbiology, Vol. 83. Washington, American Society for Microbiology, 1983, 239–244.
Tarasov BP, Yurlova NA, Elinov NP: Melanins formed by a culture of Aureobasidium (Pullularid) pullulans Arnaud (DeBary), 1910. Chem Nat Comp (Engl Transl) 216-221, 1977.
Taylor BE, Wheeler MH, Szaniszlo PJ: Evidence for pentaketide melanin biosynthesis in dematiaceous human pathogenic fungi. Mycologia 79:320–322, 1987.
Taylor RL: A suggested role for the polyphenol-phenoloxidase system in invertebrate immunity. J Invertebr Pathol 14:427–428, 1969.
Ten LN, Otroshchenko OS, Stepanichenko NN, Inoyatova DA: Metabolites of the pathogenic fungus Verticillium dahliae. VII. The phy to toxic pigment PKZh-1 from the culture liquid. Chem Nat Comp (Engl Transl) 572-574, 1977.
Ten LN, Stepanichenko NN, Mukhamedzhanov SZ, Khotyanovich AV: Action of tricyclazole on the biosynthesis of melanin in some fungi of the genus Verticillium. Chem Nat Comp (Engl Transl) 384-385, 1983.
Ten LN, Stepanichenko NN, Shevtsova VM, Mukhamedzhanov SZ, Kas’yanenko AG, Otroshckenko OS: Metabolites of the pathogenic fungus Verticillium dahliae. IX. Pentaketides of mutants and their role in the biosynthesis of melanin. Chem Nat Comp (Engl Transl) 298-302, 1980.
Ten LN, Tyshchenko AA, Stepanichenko NN, Gusakova SD, Mukhamedzhanov SZ, et al: Metabolites of the pathogenic fungus Verticillium dahliae. VI. Pentaketide metabolites and neutral lipids of virulent and a virulent strains. Chem Nat Comp (Engl Transl) 524-527, 1978.
Terreni AA, Morris PR, Di Salvo AF: A red-pigmented strain of Histoplasma capsulatum. Abst 1985 Am Soc Microbiol Ann Meet, p 369.
Tokousbalides MC, Sisler HD: Site of inhibition by tricyclazole in the melanin biosynthetic pathway of Verticillium dahliae. Pestic Biochem Physiol 11:64–73, 1979.
Tolmsoff WJ, Bell AA, Wheeler MH: Pigment formation from artificial substrates by albino microsclerotia of Verticillium dahliae in relation to melanin synthesis. Proc Beltwide Cotton Prod Res Conf, 1975, 27–28.
Turner WB: Fungal Metabolites. New York, Academic Press, 1971.
Turner WB, Aldridge DC: Fungal Metabolites II. New York, Academic Press, 1983.
Unestam T: Defense reactions in and susceptibility of Australian and New-Guinean fresh water crayfish to European crayfish plague fungus. Aust J Exp Biol Med Sci 53:349–359, 1975.
Uspenskaya GD, Reshetnikova IA, Kozlenko TN: Some characteristics of the pycnidial mucus of fungi from the genera Ascochyta and Phoma. Mikol Fitopatol 14:21–23, 1980.
Vasilevskaya AI, Zhdanova NM, Pokhodenko VD: Character of survival of some gamma irradiated species of dark-colored Hyphomycetes. Mikrobiol Zh 33:438–441, 1970.
Vermeil C, Grodeff A: Blastomycose cheloidienne, a Aureobasidium pullulans. Mycopathologia43:35–39, 1971.
Vollum DI: Chromomycosis: A review. Br J Dermatol 96:454–458, 1977.
Wang HS, Zeimis RT, Roberts GD: Evaluation of a caffeic acid-ferric citrate test for rapid identification of Cryptococcus neoformans. J Clin Microbiol 6:445–449, 1977.
Wasterstrom S-A: Accumulation of drugs on inner ear melanin. Therapeutic and ototoxic mechanisms. Scand Audiol Suppl 23. Stockholm, Almquist & Wiksell, 1984.
Wheeler MH: Melanin biosynthetic enzymes in cell-free homogenates of Verticillium dahliae and Pyricularia oryzae. Phytopathology 71:912, 1981.
Wheeler MH: Melanin biosynthesis in Verticillium dahliae\ Dehydration and reduction reactions in cell-free homogenates. Exp Mycol6:171-179, 1982.
Wheeler MH: Comparisons of fungal melanin biosynthesis in ascomycetous, imperfect and basidiomycetous fungi. Trans Br My col Soc 81:29–36, 1983.
Wheeler MH, Stipanovic RD: Melanin biosynthesis in Thielaviopsis basicola. Exp Mycol 3:340–350, 1979.
Wheeler MH, Stipanovic RD: Melanin biosynthesis and the metabolism of flaviolin and 2-hydroxyjuglone in Wangiella dermatitidis. Arch Microbiol 142:234–241, 1985.
Wheeler MH, Taylor BE, Szaniszlo PJ: Evidence for pentaketide melanin biosynthesis in dematiaceous pathogenic fungi. Abst 1986 Am Soc Microbiol Ann Meet, p 410.
Wheeler MH, Tolmsoff WJ, Bell AA: infrastructure of melanin formation in Curvularia sp., Alternaria sp., and Drechslera sorokiniana. Proc 35th Ann Meet Electron Microsc Soc Am, 1977, 398-399.
Wheeler MH, Tolmsoff WJ, Bell AA: Ultrastructural and chemical distinction of melanins formed by Verticillium dahliae from ( + )-scytalone, 1,8-dihydroxynaphthanlene, catechol, and L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine. Can J Microbiol 24:289–97, 1978.
Wheeler MH, Tolmsoff WJ, Meola S: Ultrastructure of melanin formation in Verticillium dahliae with (+ )-scytalone as a biosynthetic intermediate. Can J Microbiol 22:702–711, 1976.
White LP: Melanin: A naturally occurring cation exchange material. Nature 182:1427–1428, 1958.
Wolkow PM, Sisler HD, Vigil EL: Effect of inhibitors of melanin biosynthesis on structure and function of appressoria of Colletotrichum lindemuthianum. Physiol Plant Pathol 23:55–72, 1983.
Wolman M (ed):Pigments in Pathology, New York, Academic Press, 1969.
Woloshuk CP, Sisler HD: Tricyclazole, pyroquilon, tetrachlorophthalide, PCBA, coumarin and related compounds inhibit melanization and epidermal penetration by Pyricularia oryzae . JPestic Sci 7: 161–166, 1982.
Woloshuk CP, Sisler HD, Tokousbalides MC, Dutky SR: Melanin biosynthesis in Pyricularia oryzae: Site of tricyclazole inhibition and pathogenicity of melanin deficient mutants. Pestic Biochem Physiol 14:256–264, 1980.
Woloshuk CP, Sisler HD, Vigil EL: Action of the antipenetrant, tricyclazole, on appressoria of Pyricularia oryzae. Physiol Plant Pathol 22:245–259, 1983.
Woloshuk CP, Wolkow PM, Sisler HD: The effect of three fungicides, specific for the control of rice blast disease, on the growth and melanin biosynthesis by Pyricularia oryzae Cav. Pestic Sci 12:86–90, 1981.
Yamaguchi I, Sekido S, Misato T: The effect of non-fungicidal antiblast chemicals on the melanin biosynthesis and infection by Pyricularia oryzae. J Pestic Sci 7:523–529, 1982.
Yamaguchi I, Sekido S, Misato T: Inhibition of appressorial melanization in Pyricularia oryzae by non-fungicidal anti-blast chemicals. J Pestic Sci 8:229–232, 1983.
Yamaguchi I, Sekido S, Seto H, Misato T: Cytotoxic effect of 2-hydroxyjuglone, a metabolite in the branched pathway of melanin biosynthesis in Pyricularia oryzae. J Pestic Sci 8:545–550, 1983.
Yangco BG, TeStrake D, Okafor J: Phialophora richardsiae isolated from infected human bone: Morphological, physiological and antifungal susceptibility studies. Mycopathologia 86:103–111, 1984.
Young NA, Kwon-Chung KJ, Freeman J: Subcutaneous abcess caused by Phoma sp. resembling Pyrenochaeta romeroi: Unique fungal infection occurring in immunosuppressed recipient of renal allograft. Am J Clin Pathol 59:810–816, 1973.
Zaias N: Chromomycosis. J Cut Pathol 5:155–164, 1978.
Zenova GM: Melanoid pigments of nonchromogenic actinomycetes. Microbiology USSR 37:367–371, 1968.
Zeun R, Buchenauer H: Effect of tricyclazole on production and melanin contents of sclerotia of Botrytis cinerea. PhytopatholZ 112:259–267, 1985.
Zhdanova NN, Gauryushina AI, Vasilevskaya AI: Effect of y- and UVirradiation on survival of Cladosporium sp. and Oidiodendron cerealis. Mikrobiol Zh Kiev 35:449–452, 1973.
Zhdanova NN, Melezhik AV, Vasilevskaya AI: Thermostability of some melanin-containing fungi. Biol Bull Acad Sci USSR 1:305–310, 1980.
Zhdanova NN, Melezhik AV, Vasilevskaya AI, Pokhodendo VD: Formation and destruction of photoinduced paramagnetic centers in melanin containing fungi. Biol Bull Acad Sci USSR 5:453–458, 1978.
Zhdanova NN, Pokhodenko VD: The possible participation of a melanin pigment in the protection of the fungus cell from desiccation. Microbiology USSR 42:753–757, 1973.
Zhdanova NN, Pokhodenko VD: The protective properties of fungal melanin pigment of some soil Dematiaceae. Radial Res 59:221, 1974.
Zhdanova NN, Svishchuk AA, Shmygun MP, Bondar AI: The protective effect of the pigment isolated from the fungus Cladosporium sp. Microbiology USSR 39:520–524, 1970.
Zhdanova NN, Vasilevskaya AI, Antonenko AL, Udobenko VF: Resistance of some melanin-containing hyphal fungi to artificial solar light. Mikrobiol Zh Ajev43:178–182, 1981.
Ziprin R, Hartman PA: Toxicity of Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacterins and cell walls to the greater wax moth, Galleria mellonella. J Invert Pathol 17:265–269, 1971.
Zussman RA, Lyon L, Vicher EE: Melanoid pigment production in a strain of Trichophyton rubrum. J Bacteriol 80:708–713, 1960.
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1988 Springer-Verlag New York Inc.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Wheeler, M.H., Bell, A.A. (1988). Melanins and Their Importance in Pathogenic Fungi. In: McGinnis, M.R. (eds) Current Topics in Medical Mycology. Current Topics in Medical Mycology, vol 2. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-3730-3_10
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-3730-3_10
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4612-8323-2
Online ISBN: 978-1-4612-3730-3
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive