Abstract
Arboviruses spend most of their time in their arthropod vectors. Their foray into a vertebrate host is usually a short-term expedient for amplification and consequent acquisition by more vectors. Thus arthropods have ample opportunity to influence the evolution of the arboviruses that they transmit. Evolution consists of a change in genotype with the ensuing creation of a new phenotype. Natural selection acts on the phenotypic differences resulting in the predominance of a particular genotype within a niche. The arthropod vector provides a milieu in which changes in the arboviral genotype occur, and exerts selection pressures on the different arboviral phenotypes.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Akov, S., 1982, Blood digestion in ticks, Obenchain, F.D., and Galun, R. (eds): in Physiology of Ticks, Current Themes in Tropical Science Vol. 1, Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp. 197–211.
Anderson, R.M., and May, R.M., 1982, Coevolution of hosts and parasites. Parasitology 85:411–426.
Balashov, Yu. S., 1968, Bloodsucking ticks (lxodoidea)—vectors of diseases of man and animals, Leningrad, Nauka. English translation in Miscellaneous Publications of the Entomological Society of America 8:161–376 (1972).
Baldridge, G.D., Beaty, B.J. and Hewlett, M.J., Genomic stability of La Crosse virus during vertical and horizontal transmission, Arch. Virol. 108: 89–99.
Battles, J.K., and Dalrymple, J.M., 1988, Genetic variation among geographic isolates of Rift Vally fever virus. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 39: 617–631.
Beaty, B.J. and Aitken, T.H.G., 1979, In vitro transmission of yellow fever virus by geographic strains of Aedes aegypti. Mosq. News 39:232–238.
Beaty, B.J., Tesh, R.B., and Aitken, T.H.G., 1980, Transovarial transmission of yellow fever virus in Stegomyia mosquitoes, Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 29:125–132.
Beaty, B.J., et al., 1981, Formation of reassortant bunyaviruses in dually infected mosquitoes, Virology 111:662–665.
Beaty, B.J., et al., 1983, Interference between bunyaviruses in Aedes triseriatus mosquitoes, Virology 127:83–90.
Beaty, B.J., et al., 1985, Evolution of bunyaviruses by genome reassortment in dually infected mosquitoes (Aedes triseriatus), Science 230:548–550.
Benda, R., 1958, The common tick, Ixodes ricinus L., as a reservoir and vector of tick-borne encephalitis. I. Survival of the virus (strain B3) during the development of the tick under laboratory conditions. J. Hyg. Epidemiol. Microbiol. Immunol. 2:314–330.
Bhatt, P.N., and Anderson, C.R., 1971, Attenuation of a strain of Kyasanur forest disease virus for mice. Ind. J. Med. Res. 59:199–205.
Bilsel, P.A., Tesh, R.B. and Nichol, S.T., 1988, RNA genome stability of Toscana virus during serial transovarial transmission in the sandfly Phlebotomus perniciosus. Virus Res. 11:87–94.
Boorman, J., 1960, Observations on the amount of virus present in the haemolymph of Aedes aegypti infected with Uganda S, yellow fever and Semliki forest viruses. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 54:362–365.
Booth, T.F., et al., 1989, Anatomical basis of Thogoto virus infection in BHK cell culture and the ixodid tick vector, Rhipicephalus appendiculatus. J. Gen. Virol. 70:1093–1104.
Booth, T.F., et al., 1991, Dissemination, replication and trans-stadial persistence of Dugbe virus in the tick vector, Amblyomma variegatum. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. (in press).
Bowen, G.S., et al., 1980, Geographic variation among St. Louis encephalitis virus strains in the viremic responses of avian hosts, Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 29:1411–1419.
Brown, D.T., and Condreay, L.D., 1986, Replication of alphaviruses in mosquito cells, Schlesinger, S., and Schlesinger, M.S. (eds): in The Togaviridae and Flaviviridae, Plenum Press, Ltd., New York, pp. 171–207.
Brown, S.E., et al., 1989, Co-circulation of multiple Colorado tick fever virus genotypes. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 40:94–101.
Burgdorfer, W., 1960, Colorado tick fever. II. The behavior of Colorado tick fever virus in rodents, J. Infect. Dis. 107:384–388.
Burgdorfer, W., and Varma, M.G.R., 1967, Trans-stadial and transovarial development of disease agents in arthropods, Ann. Rev. Entomol. 12: 347–376.
Burke, D.S., and Leake, C.J., 1988, Japanese encephalitis, Monath, T.P. (ed.): in The Arboviruses: Epidemiology and Ecology, Volume 3, CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, Florida, pp. 63–92.
Burness, A.T.H., et al., 1988, Genetic stability of Ross River virus during epidemic spread in nonimmune humans, Virology 167:639–643.
Chamberlain, R.W., 1982, Arbovirology—then and now, Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 31:430–437.
Chamberlain, R.W., and Sudia, W.D., 1961, Mechanism of transmission of viruses by mosquitoes, Ann. Rev. Entomol. 6:371–390.
Chandler, L.J., et al., 1990, Heterologous reassortment of bunyaviruses in Aedes triseriatus mosquitoes and transovarial and oral transmission of newly evolved genotypes, J. Gen. Virol. 71:1045–1050.
Chernesky, M.A., and McLean, D.M., 1969, Localisation of Powassan virus in Dermacentor andersoni ticks by immunofluorescence, Can. J. Microbiol. 15:1399–1408.
Chu, M.C., O’Rourke, E.J., and Trent, D.W., 1989, Genetic relatedness among structural protein genes of dengue 1 virus stains. J. Gen. Virol. 70: 1701–1712.
Clutton-Brock, T.H., and Harvey, P.H., 1984, Comparative approaches to investigating adaptation, Krebs, J.R., and Davies, N.B. (eds): in Behavioural Ecology. An evolutionary approach (2nd. Ed.), Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford pp. 7–29.
Coelen, R.J., and Mackenzie, J.S., 1988, Genetic variation of Murray Valley enephalitis virus. J. Gen. Virol. 69:1903–1912.
Craig, G.B., Jr., and Hickey, W.A., 1967, Genetics of Aedes aegypti, Wright, J.W., and Pal, R. (eds): in Genetics of Insect Vectors of Disease, Amsterdam, Elsevier, pp. 67–131.
Davey, M.W., Mahon, R.J., and Gibbs, A.J., 1979, Togavirus interference in Culex annulirostris mosquitoes, J. Gen. Virol. 42:641–643.
Davies, C.R., Jones, L.D., and Nuttall, P.A., 1989, Viral interference in the tick, Rhipicephalus appendiculatus. I. Interference to oral superinfection by Thogoto virus, J. Gen. Virol. 70:2461–2468.
Davies, C.R., Jones, L.D., and Nuttall, P.A., 1990, A comparative study of the infection thresholds of Thogoto virus for Rhipicephalus appendiculatus and Amblyomma variegatum. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 43:99–103.
Davies, C.R., et al., 1987, In vivo reassortment of Thogoto virus (a tick-borne influenza-like virus) following oral infection of Rhipicephalus appendiculatus ticks, J. Gen. Virol. 68:2331–2338.
DeFoliart, G.R., Grimstad, P.R., and Watts, D.M., 1987, Advances in mosquito-borne arbovirus/vector research. Ann. Rev. Entomol. 32:479–505.
Devi, P.S., 1966, Some biological properties of two variants of Kyasanur Forest disease virus. Ind. J. Med. Res. 54:419–424.
Dixon, L.K., and Wilkinson, P.J., 1988, Genetic diversity of African swine fever virus isolates from soft ticks (Ornithodoros moubata) inhabiting warthog burrows in Zambia. J. Gen. Virol. 69:2981–2993.
Doi, R., 1970, Studies on the mode of development of Japanese encephalitis virus in some groups of mosquitoes by the fluorescent antibody technique, Jap. J. Exp. Med. 40:101–115.
Doi, R., Shiraska, H., and Sasa, M., 1967, The mode of development of Japanese encephalitis virus in the mosquito Culex tritaeniorhynchus summorosus as observed by the fluorescent antibody technique, Jap. J. Exp. Med. 37:227–238.
Eaton, B.T., 1978, Persistent togavirus infection of Aedes albopictus cells, Kurstak, E., and Maramorosch, K. (eds): in Viruses and the Environment, Academic Press, New York, pp. 181–201.
Emmons, R.W., 1988, Ecology of Colorado tick fever virus, Ann. Rev. Microbiol. 42:49–64.
Ewald, P.W., 1983, Host-parasite relations, vectors, and the evolution of disease severity. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 14:465–485.
Ewald, P.W., 1987, Tranmission modes and evolution of the parasitismmutalism continum, Annals N.Y. Acad. Sci. 503:295–306.
Ewald, P.W., 1988, Cultural vectors, virulence, and the emergence of evolutionary epidemiology, P.H. Harvey (ed), in: Oxford Survey of Evolutionary Biology, Oxford University Press, Vol. 5, pp. 215–245.
Faran, M.E., et al., 1987. Reduced survival of adult Culex pipiens infected with Rift valley fever virus. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 37:403–409.
Faran, M.E., et al., 1988, The distribution of Rift valley fever virus in the mosquito Culex pipiens as revealed by viral titration of dissected organs and tissues, Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 39:206–213.
Fine, P.E.M., 1975, Vectors and vertical transmission: An epidemiologic perspective, Annals N.Y. Acad. Sci. 266: 173–194.
Florio, L., Miller, M.S., and Mugruge, E.R., 1950, Colorado tick fever. Isolation of the virus from Dermacentor andersoni in nature and a laboratory study of the transmission of the virus in the tick. J. Immunol. 64:257–263.
Flynn, L.M., Coelen, R.J., and MacKenzie, J.S., 1989, Kunjin virus isolates of Australia are genetically homogeneous. J. Gen. Virol. 70:2819–2824.
Fuller, F.J., Freedman-Faulstich, E.Z., and Barnes, J.A., 1987, Complete nucleotide sequence of the tick-borne, orthomyxo-like Dhori/Indian/1313/61 virus nucleoprotein gene. Virology 160:81–87.
Gauld, L.W., et al., 1974, Observations on a natural cycle of La Crosse virus (California group) in southwestern California. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 23:983–992.
Gentsch, J.R., et al., 1980, Evidence from recombinant bunyavirus studies that the M RNA gene products elicit neutralizing antibodies. Virology 102:190–204.
Greig, A., 1972, The localisation of African swine fever virus in the tick Ornithodoros moubata porcinus, Arch. ges. Virusforsch. 39:240–247.
Grimstad, P.R., 1983, Mosquitoes and the incidence of encephalitis. Ad. Virus Res. 28:357–438.
Grimstad, P.R., Ross, Q.E., and Craig Jr., G.B., 1980, Aedes triseriatus (Diptera: Culicidae) and La Crosse virus. II. Modification of mosquito feeding behaviour by virus infection, J. Med. Entomol. 17:1–7
Grimstad, P.R., et al., 1977, Aedes triseriatus and La Crosse virus: Geographic variation in vector susceptibility and ability to transmit. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 26:990–996.
Hahn, C.S., et al., 1988, Western equine encephalitis virus is a recombinant virus, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85:5997–6001
Hardy, J.L., et al., 1983, Intrinsic factors affecting vector competence of mosquitoes for arboviruses. Ann. Rev. Entomol. 28:229–262.
Hayes, C.G., 1988, West Nile Fever, Monath, T.P. (ed): in The Arboviruses: Epidemiology and Ecology, Vol. 5, CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, Florida, pp. 59–88.
Heidner, H.W., et al., 1988, Bluetongue virus genome remains stable throughout prolonged infection of cattle, J. Gen. Virol. 69:2629–2636.
Helmy N., Khalil, G.M., and Hoogstraal, H., 1983, Hyperparasitism in Ornithodoros erracticus, J. Parasitol. 69:229–233.
Holland, J., et al., 1982, Rapid evolution of RNA genomes. Science 215:1577–1585.
Hoogstraal, H., 1973, Viruses and ticks, Gibbs, A.J. (ed): in Viruses and Invertebrates, North-Holland Publ., The Hague, pp. 351–390.
Hoogstraal, H., 1979, The epidemiology of tick-borne Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever in Asia, Europe and Africa. J. Med. Entomol. 15:307–417.
Houk, E.J., et al., 1985, Western equine encephalomyelitis virus: In vivo infection and morphogenesis in mosquito mesenteronal epithelial cells, Virus Res. 2:123–138.
Iroegbu, C.U., and Pringle, C.R., 1981, Genetic interactions among viruses of the Bunyamwera complex, J. Virol. 37:383–394.
Jones, L.D., and Nuttall, P.A., 1988, The effect of host immunity on the transmission of tick-borne viruses, Anim. Tech. 39:161–165.
Jones, L.D., and Nuttall, P.A., 1990, The effect of host resistance to tick infestation on the transmission of Thogoto virus by ticks. J. Gen. Virol. 71: 1039–1043.
Jones, L.D., et al., 1987, A novel model of arbovirus transmission involving a nonviremic host, Science 237:775–777.
Jones, L.D., et al., 1987, Reassortment of Thogoto virus (a tick-borne influenza-like virus) in a vertebrate host, J. Gen. Virol. 68:1299–1306.
Jones, L.D., et al., 1989, Viral interference in the tick, Rhipicephalus appendiculatus. II. Absence of interference with Thogoto virus when the tick gut is by-passed by parenteral inoculation. J. Gen. Virol. 70:2469–2473.
Karabatsos, N., 1985, International Catalogue of Arboviruses including Certain Other Viruses of Vertebrates, Third Edition, American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, San Antonio.
Karabatsos, N., et al., 1987, Antigenic variants of Colorado tick fever virus, J. Gen. Virol. 68:1463–1469.
Kay, B.H., Fanning, I.D., and Mottram, P., 1989, Rearing temperature influences flavivirus vector competence of mosquitoes, Med. Vet. Entomol. 3:415–422.
Kirkegaard, K., and Baltimore, D., 1986, The mechanism of RNA recombination in poliovirus, Cell 47:433–443.
Klimas, R.A., et al., 1981, Genotypic varieties of La Crosse virus isolated from different geographic regions of the continental United Sates and evidence for a naturally occuring intertypic recombinant La Crosse virus. Am. J. Epidem. 114:112–131.
Knudson, D.L., and Shope, R.E., 1985, Overview of the orbiviruses, Barber, T.L., and Jochim, M.M. (eds): in Bluetongue and related orbiviruses, Alan R. Liss Inc., New York, pp. 255–266.
Knudson, D.L., and Monath, T.P., 1990, Orbiviruses, Fields, B.N. et al.: in Virology, Raven Press, New York, pp. 1405–1433.
Kondrashova, Z.N., and Filippovets, R.V., 1970, Infection rate of Ixodes persulcatus ticks and certain questions of transovarial transmission after dosaged infection with tick-borne encephalitis virus, Vop. Virusol. 15:703–708.
Korenberg, E.I., and Pchelkina, A.A., 1984, Tick-borne encephalitis virus titres in engorged adult Ixodes persulcatus ticks, Parazitologiya, Leningrad 18:123–127. English translation, NAMRU-3 T1788.
Kramer, L.D., et al., 1981, Dissemination barriers for western equine encephalomyelitis virus in Culex tarsalis infected after ingestion of low viral doses, Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 30:190–197.
Kuberski, T., 1979, Fluorescent antibody studies on the development of Dengue-2 virus in Aedes Albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae), J. Med. Entomol. 16:343–349.
Leake, C.J., 1984, Transovarial transmission of arboviruses by mosquitoes, Mayo, M.A. and Harrap, K. A. (eds): in Vectors in Virus Biology, Academic Press, London, pp. 63–91.
Leake, C.J., and Johnson, R.T., 1987, The pathogenesis of Japanese encephalitis virus in Culex tritaeniorhyncus mosquitoes, Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 81:681–685.
Ludwig, G.V., et al., 1989, Enzyme processing of La Crosse virus glycoprotein G1: A bunyavirus-vector infection model, Virology 171:108–113.
May, R.M., and Anderson, R.M., 1983, Epidemiology and genetics in the coevolution of parasites and hosts. Proc. Roy. Soc. London B219:281–313.
McCance, E.F., 1984, Genetics of Colorado tick fever virus, Ph.D. Thesis, Yale University, New Haven, Connectícut.
Mcintosh, B.M., et al., 1976, Epidemics of West Nile and Sindbis viruses in South Africa with Culex (Culex) univittatus Theobald as vector. S. Afr. J. Sci. 72:295–300.
McKelvey, J.J. Jr., Eldridge, B.F., and Maramorosch, K., eds., 1981, Vectors of Disease Agents, Praeger, New York, p. 243.
Mellor, P.S., and Boorman, J., 1980, Multiplication of bluetongue virus in Culicoides nubeculosis (Meigen) simultaneously infected with the virus and the microfilariae of Onchocerca cervicalis (Railliet & Henry), Ann. Trop. Med. Parisotol. 74:463–469.
Miles, J. A.R., Pillai, J.S., and Maguire, T., 1973, Multiplication of Whataroa viurs in mosquitoes, J. Med. Entomol. 10:176–185.
Miller, B.R., and Mitchell, C.J., 1986, Passage of yellow fever virus: Its effect on infection and transmission rates in Aedes aegypti, Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 35:1302–1309.
Miller, B.R., et al., 1985, Experimental studies on the replication and dissemination of Qalyub virus (Bunyaviridae: Nairovirus) in the putative tick vector, Ornithodoros (Pavlovskyella) erraticus, Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 34:180–187.
Mims, C.A., Day, M.F., and Marshall, I.D., 1966, Cytopathic effect of Semliki forest virus in the mosquito Aedes aegypti, Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 15:775–784.
Mitchell, C., 1983, Mosquito vector competence and arboviruses, Harris K. (ed): in Current Topics in Vector Research Vol. 1, Praeger, New York, pp. 63–92.
Monath, T.P., 1988, Yellow fever, Monath, T.P. (ed): in The Arboviruses: Epidemiology and Ecology, Vol. 5. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, Florida, pp. 139–232.
Monath, T.P., and Tsai, T.F., 1987, St. Louis encephalitis: Lessons from the last decade, Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 37(Suppl.):40S–59S.
Morris, C.D., 1988, Eastern Equine Encephalomyelitis, Monath, T.P. (ed): in The Arboviruses: Epidemiology and Ecology, Vol. 2. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, Florida, pp. 1–20.
Moss, S.R., Ayres, C.M., and Nuttall, P.A., 1988, The Great Island subgroup of tick-borne orbiviruses represents a single gene pool, J. Gen. Virol. 69:2721–2727.
Moss, S.R., Fukusho, A., and Nuttall, P.A., 1990, RNA segment 5 of Broadhaven virus, a tick-borne Orbivirus, shows sequence homology with segment 5 of bluetongue virus, Virology 179:482–484.
Murphy, F.A., Whitfield, S.G., Sudia, W.D., and Chamberlain, R.W., 1975, Interaction of vector with vertebrate pathogenic viruses, Maramorosch, K., and Shope, R.E. (eds): in Invertebrate Immunity, Academic Press, New York, pp. 25–48.
Nosek, J., et al., 1986, Pecularities of tick-borne encephalitis virus reproduction in Haemaphysalis inermis and their expiants, Acta Virol 30:396–401.
Ntiamoa-Baidu, Y., 1986, Parasitism of female Ixodes (Afrixodes) moreli (Acari:Ixodidae) by males, J. Med. Entomol. 23:484–488.
Nuttall, P.A., 1984, Transmission of viruses to wild life by ticks, Mayo, M., and Harrap, K.A. (eds): in Vectors in Virus Biology, Academic Press, London, pp. 135–159.
Nuttall, P.A., and Moss. S.R., 1989, Genetic reassortaient indicates a new grouping for tick-borne orbiviruses, Virology 171:156–161.
Obenchain, F.D., and Galun, R., eds., 1982, Physiology of Ticks, Pergamon Press, Oxford, p. 509.
Paulson, S.L., Grimstad, P.R., and Craig, G.B. Jr., 1989, Midgut and salivary gland barriers to La Crosse virus dissemination in mosquitoes of the Aedes triseriatus group, Med. Vet. Ent. 3:113–123.
Pavlovsky, E.N., and Soloviev, V.D., 1940, Experimental study of the circulation of tick-borne encephalitis virus in the organism of the tick vector (Ixodes persulcatus), Arh. Biol. Nauk. 59:111–117.
Pavlovsky, E.N., and Solovyov, V.D., 1941, On the circulation of springsummer encephalitis virus in the organism of the tick vector, Haemaphysalis concinna, Trudy voj. Med. Inst. Akad. Krasnoiarsk Armii S.M. Kirova 25: 9–18.
Peleg, J., 1975, In vivo behaviour of a Sindbis virus mutant isolated from persistently infected Aedes aegypti cell cultures, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 166: 204–213.
Peters, C.J., and Dalrymple, J.M., 1990, Alphaviruses, Fields, B.N. (ed): in Virology, Plenum Press, Ltd., New York, pp. 713–761.
Pletnev, A.G., Yamshchikov, V.F., and Blinov, V.M., 1990, Nucleotide sequence of the genome and complete amino acid sequence of the polyprotein of tick-borne encephalitis virus, Virology 174:250–263.
Plowright, W., Perry, C.T., and Peirce, M.A., 1970, Transovarial infection with African swine fever virus in the argasid tick Ornithodoros moubata porcinus, Walton, Res. Vet. Sci. 11:582–584.
Plowright, W., Perry, C.T., and Greig, A. 1974, Sexual transmission of African swine fever in the tick Ornithodoros moubata porcinus, Walton. Res. Vet. Sci. 17:106–113.
Pringle, C.R. et al., 1984, Restriction of sub-unit reassortment in the bunyaviridae, Compans, R.W., and Bishop, D.H.L. (eds): in Molecular Biology of Negative Strand Viruses, Academic Press, Orlando, pp. 45–50.
Reanney, D.C., 1982, The evolution of RNA viruses, Ann. Rev. Microbiol. 36:47–73.
Reeves, W.C., 1974, Overwintering of arboviruses. Progr. Med. Virol. 17:193–220.
Reeves, W.C., Bellamy, R.E., and Scrivani, R.P., 1958, Relationships of mosquito vectors to winter surival of encephalitis viruses. I. Under natural conditions. Am. J. Hyg. 67:78–89.
Řeháček, J., 1962, Transovarial transmission of tick-borne encephalitis virus by ticks. Acta Virol. 6:220–226.
Řeháček, J., 1965, Development of animal viruses and rickettsiae in ticks and mites, Ann. Rev. Entomol. 10:1–24.
Reid, H.W., 1984, Epidemiology of louping ill, Mayo, M.A., and Harrap, K.A. (eds): in Vectors in Virus Biology, Academic Press, London, pp. 161–178.
Rico-Hesse, R., et al., 1988, Genetic variation of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus strains of the ID variety in Columbia, Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 38:195–204.
Rosen, L., 1988, Further observations on the mechanism of vertical transmission of flaviviruses by Aedes mosquitoes, Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 39:123–126.
Rosen, L., Gubler, D.J., and Bennett, P.H., 1981, Epidemic polyarthritis (Ross River) virus infection in the Cook Islands. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 30:1294–1302.
Rosomer, W.S., Faran, M.E., and Bailey, C.L., 1987, Newly recognised route of arbovirus dissemination from the mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae) midgut, J. Med. Entomol. 24:431–432.
Rossignol, P.A., et al., 1985, Enhanced mosquito blood-finding success on parasitaemic hosts: Evidence for vector-parasite mutualism, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 82:7725–7727.
Rozeboom, L.E., and Burgdorfer, W., 1959, Development of Colorado tick fever virus in the Rocky mountain wood tick, Dermacentor andersoni, Am. J. Hyg. 69:138–145.
Rozeboom, L.E., and Kassira, E.N., 1969, Dual infection of mosquitoes with strains of West Nile virus, J. Med. Entomol. 4:407–411.
Samal, S.K., et al., 1987, Mixed infection of Culicoides variipennis with bluetongue virus serotypes 10 and 17: Evidence for high frequency reassortment in the vector, J. Gen. Virol. 68:2319–2329.
Scherer, W.F., et al., 1982, Mesenteronal infection threshold of an epizootic strain of Venezuelan encephalitis virus in Culex (Melanoconion) taeniopus mosquitoes and its implications to the apparent disappearance of this virus strain from an enzootic habitat in Guatemala, Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 31:1030–1037.
Scherer, W.F., et al., 1985, Ecological observations of Venezuelan encephalitis virus in vertebrates and isolations of Nepuyo and Patois viruses from sentinel hamsters at Pacific and Atlantic habitats in Guatemala, 1968–1980. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 34:790–798.
Scherer, W.F., et al., 1987, Vector competence of Culex (Melanoconion) taeniopus for allopatric and epizootic Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 36:194–197.
Schmidt, J.R., and Shope, R.E., 1971, Kemerovo virus from a migrating common redstart of Eurasia, Acta Virol. 15:112.
Smith, C.E.G., 1964, Factors influencing the behaviour of viruses in their arthropodan hosts, Taylor, A.E.R. (ed): in Host-parasite relationships in invertebrate hosts, Blackwell Scientific Press, Oxford, pp. 1–31.
Smith, D.B., and Inglis, S.C., 1987, The mutation rate and variability of eukaryotic viruses: An analytical review, J. Gen. Virol. 68:2729–2740.
Staunton, D., Nuttall, P.A., and Bishop, D.H.L., 1989, Sequence analyses of Thogoto viral RNA segment 3: Evidence for a distant relationship between an arbovirus and members of the Orthomyxoviridae, J. Gen. Virol. 70:2811–2817.
Stollar, V., 1980, Togaviruses in cultured arthropod cells, Schlesinger, R.W. (ed): in The Togaviruses, Academic Press, New York, pp. 583–621.
Strauss, E.G., Strauss, J.H., and Levine, A.J., 1990, Virus evolution, Fields B.N. et al. (eds): in Virology, Second Edition, Raven Press, Ltd., New York, pp. 167–190.
Sudia, W.D., and Newhouse, V.F., 1975, Epidemic Venezuelan equine encephalitis in North America: A summary of virus-vector-host relationships. Am. J. Epidem. 101:1–13.
Sugiyama, K., Bishop, D.H.L., and Roy, P., 1981, Analyses of the genomes of bluetongue viruses recovered in the United States. I. Oligonucleotide fingerprint studies that indicate the existence of naturally occurring reassortant BTV isolates, Virology 114:210–217.
Sundin, D.R., and Beaty, B.J., 1988, Interference to oral superinfection of Aedes triseriatus infected with La Crosse virus, Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 38:428–432.
Tabarés, E., et al., 1987, African swine fever virus DNA: Deletions and additions during adaptation to growth in monkey kidney cells. Arch. Virol. 97:333–346.
Tesh, R.B., 1980, Experimental studies on the transovarial transmission of Kunjin and San Angelo viruses in mosquitoes, Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 9:657–666.
Tesh, R.B., 1984, Transovarial transmissions of arboviruses in their invertebrate vectors, Harris, K.F. (ed): in Current Topics in Vector Research, Vol. 2, Praeger Publishers, New York, pp. 57–76.
Trent, D.W., et al., 1981, Genetic heterogeneity among Saint Louis encephalitis virus isolates of different geographic isolates. Virology 114:319–332.
Turell, M.J., Hardy, J.L., and Reeves, W.C., 1982, Sensitivity to carbon dioxide in mosquitoes infected with California serogroup arboviruses, Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 31:389–394.
Turell, M.J., Hardy, J.L., and Reeves, W.C., 1982, Stabilized infection of California encephalitis virus in Aedes dorsalis, and its implications for viral maintenance in nature, Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 31:1252–1259.
Turell, M.J., Reeves, W.C., and Hardy, J.L., 1982, Transovarial and transstadial transmission of California encephalitis virus in Aedes dorsalis and Aedes melanimon, Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 31:1021–1029.
Turell, M.J., et al., 1984, Enhanced arboviral transmission by mosquitoes that concurrently ingested microfilariae, Science 225:1039–1041.
Turell, M.J., Gargan II, T.P., and Bailey, C.L., 1985, Culex pipiens (Diptera: Culicidae) morbidity and mortality associated with Rift Valley fever virus infection, J. Med. Entomol. 22:332–337.
Turell, M.J., Rossi, C.A., and Bailey, C.L., 1985, Effect of extrinsic incubation temperature on the ability of Aedes taeniorhynchus and Culex pipiens to transmit Rift valley fever virus, Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 34: 1211–1218.
Turell, M.J., et al., 1987, Increased dissemination of dengue 2 virus in Aedes aegypti associated with concurrent ingestion of microfilariae of Brugia malayi, Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 37:197–201.
Turell, M.J., et al., 1990, Generation and transmission of Rift Valley fever viral reassortants by the mosquito Culex pipiens, J. Gen. Virol. 71:2307–2312.
Ushijima, H., Clerx-Van Haaster, C.M., and Bishop, D.H.L., 1981, Analyses of Patois group bunyaviruses: Evidence for naturally occurring recombinant bunyaviruses and existence of immune precipitable and non-precipitatale nonvirion proteins induced in bunyavirus-infected cells. Virology 110:318–332.
Voyakov, V.I., and Mishaeva, N.P., 1980, Investigation of a possibility of protecting vertebrates against transmissive infection with tick-borne encephalitis virus, Vop. Virus. 2:170–172.
Waage, J.K., and Davies, C.R., 1986, Host-mediated competition in a bloodsucking insect community, J. Anim. Ecol. 55:171–180.
Watts, D.M., et al., 1987, Effect of temperature on the vector efficiency of Aedes aegypti for Dengue 2 virus, Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg., 36:143–152.
Weaver, S.C., 1986, Electron microscopic analysis of infection patterns for Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus in the vector mosquito, Culex (Melanoconion) taeniopus, Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 35:624–631.
Wesley, R.D., and Tuthill, A.E., 1984, Genome relatedness among African swine fever virus field isolates by restriction endonuclease analysis. Prev. Vet. Med. 2:53–62.
Whitfield, S.G., Murphy, F.A., and Sudia, W.D., 1973, St. Louis encephalitis virus: An ultrastructural study of infection in a mosquito vector, Virology 56:70–87.
W.H.O., 1985, Arthropod-borne and rodent-borne virual diseases. WHO Technical Report Series, No. 719.
Wikel, S.K., 1982, Immune responses to arthropods and their products, Ann. Rev. Entomol. 27:21–48.
Willadsen, P., 1980, Immunity to ticks, Adv. Parasitol. 18:293–313.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1991 Springer-Verlag New York Inc.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Nuttall, P.A., Jones, L.D., Davies, C.R. (1991). The Role of Arthropod Vectors in Arbovirus Evolution. In: Harris, K.F. (eds) Advances in Disease Vector Research. Advances in Disease Vector Research, vol 8. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-3110-3_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-3110-3_2
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4612-7800-9
Online ISBN: 978-1-4612-3110-3
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive