Abstract
Spain plays a strong role in our worldwide defensive strategy and our policies toward that country are, in a sense, dictated by our security interests. […] The assumption by the United States of a more active role in seeking to force a change in Spain would jeopardize our security interests. Spanish history is also replete with instances of violent reaction to foreign interference in internal affairs. It should be recalled that when the United Nations in 1947 condemned the Franco regime and the Ambassadors of United Nations countries in Spain were withdrawn, in an attempt to force a political change, the only result was to rally the Spanish people to the support of General Franco.1
This paper was written in the framework of the research projects “Estados Unidos y la España del desarrollo (1959–1975): diplomacia pública, cambio social y transición política” (Ministry of Science and Innovation, HAR2010–21694), and “Difusión y recepción de la cultura de Estados Unidos en España, 1959–1975” (Franklin Institute-UAH).
Instituto de Historia, CCHS-CSIC.
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Notes
For illustrative purposes, a critical reflection regarding said North American contradiction can be found in Josep Fontana Lázaro, Por el bien del Imperio. Una historia del mundo desde 1945, Barcelona: Pasado y Presente, 2011, pp. 9–24.
Scott Lucas, Freedom’s War: The U.S. Crusade Against the Soviet Union, 1945–1956, New York: New York University Press, 1999.
David F. Schmitz, Thank God They’re On Our Side. The United States and Right-Wing Dictatorships, 1921–1965, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999
and The United States and Right-Wing Dictatorships, 1965–1989, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
Several perspectives regarding that extension of the field of study can be found in Gilbert M. Joseph, “Toward a New Cultural History of U.S.-Latin American Relations,” and Emily S. Rosenberg, “Turning to Culture,” in Close Encounters of Empire. Writing the Cultural History of U.S.—Latin American Relations, Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1998, pp. 3–46 and 497–514;
Jessica C. E. Gienow-Hecht and Frank Schumacher (eds.), Culture and International History, New York, Oxford: Berghan Books, 2004;
François Chaubetand Laurent Martin, Histoire des relations culturelles dans le monde contemporain, Paris: Armand Colin, 2011, pp. 194–218.
Several recent collective works reflect the wide thematic range and the new orientations adopted within the scope of the Cold War analysis: Melvyn P. Leffler and Odd Arne Westad, The Cambridge History of the Cold War, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010;
Richard H. Immerman and Petra Goedde (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the Cold War, New York: Oxford University Press, 2013;
and Artemy Kalinovsky and Craig Daigle (eds.), The Routledge Handbook of the Cold War, London: Routledge, 2014.
Michael, E. Latham, Modernization as Ideology: American Social Science and “Nation Building” in the Kennedy Era, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000, pp. 211–214.
With regard to the path of research in this field, see Jessica C. E. Gienow-Hecht, “Shame on Us? Academics, Cultural Transfer, and the Cold War,” Diplomatic History, 24/3 (2000), pp. 465–494
and Kenneth A. Osgood and Brian C. Etheridge (eds.), The United States and Public Diplomacy. New Directions in Cultural and International History, Leiden-Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Pubis, 2010.
The canonical text of that modernization theory was that of Walter W. Rostow, The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1960, although many other theorists examine it in depth from economics, poluitical science, or sociology viewpoints.
There is much literature on the subject and some of the reference studies have already been mentioned in several chapters of this work. For more on their impact, see Robert MacMahon, The Cold War in the Third World, New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.
See Nicholas J. Cull, The Cold War and the United States Information Agency. American Propaganda and Public Diplomacy, 1945–1989, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008, pp. 259–261.
Dean B. Mahin, “The Department of State’s International Visitor Program,” April 1968.
An in-depth analysis in Giles Scott Smith, Networks of Empire: The US State Department’s Foreign Leader Program in the Netherlands, France, and Britain from 1950 to 1910, Brussels: PIE Peter Lang, 2008.
For the effects of some of those actions, see Odd Arne Westad, The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005;
Gilbert Joseph and Daniela Spenser (eds.), In from the Cold: Latin America’s New Encounter with the Cold War, Durham: Duke University Press, 2008;
and Nick Cullather, The Hungry World: America’s Cold War Battle against Poverty in Asia, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2010.
Javier Tusell, Carrero. La eminencia gris del régimen de Franco, Madrid: Eds. Temas de Hoy, 1993, pp. 115–118.
See Lorenzo Delgado Gómez-Escalonilla and Pablo León-Aguinaga, “De la primacía estratégica a la difusión del modelo americano: Estados Unidos y la España del franquismo,” in Ángeles Barrio Alonso, Jorge de Hoyos Puente, and Rebeca Saavedra Arias (eds.), Nuevos horizontes del pasado. Culturas políticas, identidades y formas de representatión, Santander: PubliCan, 2011, pp. 171–185.
Ismael Saz, “Mucho mas que crisis políticas: el agotamiento de dos proyectos enfrentados,” Ayer, 68 (2007), p. 152.
See also Rosa Pardo, “Estados Unidos y el tardofranquismo: las relaciones bilaterales durante la presidencia Nixon, 1969–1974,” Historia del Presente, no. 6 (2005), p. 30.
See Charles Powell, El amigo americano. España y Estados Unidos de la dictadura a la iemocracia, Madrid: Galaxia Gutemberg-Círculo de Lectores, 2011, pp. 38–51.
Manuel Vázquez Montalban, La penetración americana en España, Madrid: EDICUSA, 1974;
Eduardo Chamorro and Ignacio Fontes, Las bases norteamerica-nas en España, Barcelona: Editorial Euros, 1976.
See Powell, El amigo americano, and Encarnación Lemus, Estados Unidos y la Transición española. Desde la Revolutión de los Claveles a la Marcha Verde, Madrid: Silex, 2011.
An assessment of the existing studies on this external influence can be found in Manuel Ortíz Heras, “La transición ¿Un asunto doméstico por excelencia?… pero exportable,” and Damian A. González Madrid, “Actores y factores internaciona-les en el cambio político español. Una mirada a la historiografía,” in Óscar J. Martín García and Manuel Ortíz Heras (eds.), Claves internationales en la transitión española, Madrid: Catarata, 2010, pp. 13–38 and 39–64.
Encarnación Lemus, “Entre la intervención y la supervisión. Las potencias occidentales ante el cambio politico peninsular,” in Rafael Quirosa Muñoz (ed.), Historia de la Transitión en España. Los initios del proceso democratizador, Madrid: Biblioteca Nueva, 2007, pp. 369–380.
For a more detailed analysis, see Josep Sánchez Cervelló, La revolutión portuguesa y su ìnfluencìa en la transitión española 1961–1976, Madrid: Nerea, 1995;
Juan C. Jiménez, España y Portugal en transitión. Los caminos a la democracia en la peninsula ibérica, Madrid: Sílex, 2009.
Manuela Aroca Mohedano, Internacionalismo en la historia reciente de la UGT (1971–1986). Del tardofranquismo a la estabilización de la democracia, Madrid: Cinca, 2011, pp. 87–96;
Antonio Muñoz Sánchez, El Amigo Alemán: el SPD y el PSOE de la dictadura a la democracia, Barcelona: RBA, 2012;
Francisco J. Rodríguez Jiménez, “La AFL-CIO y el sindicalismo español, 1953–1971,” Hispania, vol. 74, no. 247 (2015).
R. Richard Rubottom and J. Carter Murphy, Spain and the Unites States since World War II, New York, Praeger, 1984, p. 153.
Laurence Whitehead, “Democracy by Convergence: Southern Europe,” in Laurence Whitehead (ed.), The International Dimensions of Democratization. Europe and the Americas, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996, pp. 261–284.
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Gómez-Escalonilla, L.D. (2015). Consistency and Credibility: Why You Cannot Collaborate with Dictatorships and Sell Democracy. In: Rodríguez Jiménez, F.J., Gómez-Escalonilla, L.D., Cull, N.J. (eds) US Public Diplomacy and Democratization in Spain. Palgrave Macmillan Series in Global Public Diplomacy. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137461452_9
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