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Background and Brief History

Tanzania, the largest country in East Africa, includes the spice islands of Zanzibar, Pemba, Mafia, and contains Africa’s highest point—Kilimanjaro, a dormant volcano snowcapped even though it is near the equator (National Geographic, 2016). Mainland Tanzania, located south of the equator, lies between the area of the great lakes (Victoria, Tanganyika, and Malawi) and the Indian Ocean. The area occupied by Tanzania, slightly larger than twice the size of the state of California, is bounded on the north by Uganda and Kenya, on the east by the Indian Ocean, on the south by Mozambique and Malawi, and on the west by Zaire, Burundi, and Rwanda (Worldmark Enclyclopedia of Nations, 2007).

The total population of the United Republic of Tanzania is 51,045,882 (Central Intelligence Agency, 2015). According to the 2012 census, the population of mainland Tanzania was 43,625,434 (or 97.1 % of total population) compared to 33,461,849 in 2002. It is estimated that Tanzania will have a population of 70.1 million in 2025 (Agwanda & Amani, 2014). This rate of growth is similar to that of many other countries in Sub-Saharan Africa (African Development Bank & United Nations Fund for Population Activities, 2005; United Nations Population Fund, 2012). The population pyramids of Tanzania indicate a youthful population with about half of the total population under 17.5 years (median age).

Tanzania attempted to build a socialist economy between 1967 and 1985. The efforts were organized around the concepts of self-reliance and state entrepreneurship both of which were articulated in a blueprint called the Arusha Declaration constituting a policy and guidelines for building a socialist economy (Nyerere, 1977). In 1986, a market-based system of economic coordination was adopted following an agreement with the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) as a necessary condition for economic recovery support (Lipumba, 1992; Bagachwa et al., 1992; Kiondo, 1993; Mukangara, 1993).

Similarly, the political systems in Tanzania also changed to reflect other developments in society. In 1965, Tanzania became a mono-party state until 1992 when a multiparty system was re-introduced. Tanzania has always held elections every five years and the country has largely been considered democratic (Mmuya, 1998). The fifth multiparty election was held in October 2015 with the political parties, Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM) and Chama Cha Demokrasia na Maendeleo (CHADEMA) 1 fielding candidates for presidency, parliamentary seats, and local councillorship in the mainland Tanzania which dominates the political scene.

Culture

Like many other African countries, Tanzania has many different tribes with distinct cultural practices including language. It is believed that Tanzania has over 120 tribes (Tanzania Embassy, 2015) scattered over a total geographical area of 945 square kilometers. Some of the large tribes are Sukuma, Nyamwezi, Haya, Kuria (around Lake Victoria), Chaga, Masai (northern Tanzania), Nyakyusa, Hehe (southern), and Zaramo and Mwera (east/coastal people). These tribes have unique cultures. However, one can also argue that a common national culture exists, characterized by the use of a common national language of Kiswahili and other practices that are shared among many Tanzanian people.

According to Hofstede (2015), national culture can be characterized along various dimensions including power distance, individualism, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance, long-term orientation, and indulgence. Power distance is defined as the extent to which less powerful members of institutions and organizations accept the unequal distribution of power. Tanzania scores high on this dimension (score of 70) which means that the society generally accepts a hierarchical order whereby each person has a place. Similarly, hierarchy is also seen in organizations which are typified by inherent inequalities, centralization, and an expectation that subordinates need to be told what to do. The cultural dimension of power distance can be seen in the importance of social status, and the role of age and gender regarding leadership in Tanzania. For example, social status is highly respected and valued among Tanzanians. Factors that enhance social status include achievement in the form of riches, education, and a leadership position. People who have achieved these factors are held in high regard. This is the reason why people who have earned advanced qualifications (e.g. Ph.D.) prefer to be addressed with the title of Dr. or Professor. Similarly, politicians like to be referred as “Honorable” to reflect their position in society.

Further, respect for age is an important cultural element which highlights power distance in most tribes in Tanzania. Traditionally, elders are accorded higher respect by younger people. For example, respect is manifested when younger people offer elders seats in a crowded space, such as public transportation. In conversations and meetings, younger people are expected to show respect by not criticizing older people even when they err. Similarly, men have higher status than women in a traditional context. For example, men are usually considered to be the head of the family. Status differential is also seen in the relationships between leaders and their followers, where leaders have to be respected and not criticized by their followers. In everyday life, these types of relationships imply that those individuals with lower status find it difficult to challenge the views of elders, men, and leaders.

Individualism is the degree of interdependence a society maintains among its members (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010). With a score of 25, Tanzania is categorized as a collectivistic society (Hofstede, 2015). In collectivist cultures, close long-term commitment to the members of a group is expected. Loyalty to one’s family, extended family, or extended relationships is central to the society. In Tanzanian organizations, one will expect employer/employee relationships to be viewed from a moral perspective. Hiring and promotion decisions can take the employee’s in-group into account.

Masculinity is the extent to which a society will be driven by competition, achievement, and success (Hofstede et al., 2010). With a score of 40 on this dimension, Tanzania is considered a feminine society and hence one would expect there to be an emphasis on quality of life and well-being (Hofstede, 2015). In addition, conflicts are likely to be resolved by compromise and negotiation. In an organizational context, an effective leader is supportive and decision making is achieved through involvement.

Uncertainty avoidance is defined as the extent to which the members of a culture feel threatened by ambiguous or unknown situations (Hofstede et al., 2010). Given Tanzania scores 50 on this dimension, one may expect no preference with respect to dealing with uncertainty (Hofstede, 2015). Tanzanians have learned to successfully adapt to ambiguity.

Long-term orientation describes the extent to which a society has to maintain some links with its own past while dealing with the challenges of the present and future (Hofstede et al., 2010; Hofstede, 2015). Those cultures scoring high on this dimension focus on preparing for the future. On the other hand, cultures scoring low on this dimension are considered normative societies which prefer to maintain traditions. Tanzania scores a 34 on this dimension indicating that it is a more short-term culture, which has great respect for traditions and a strong concern for establishing the absolute (Hofstede, 2015).

Indulgence is defined as the extent to which people try to control their desires and impulses, based on the way they were raised (Hofstede et al., 2010). Cultures that score high on the indulgence dimension have relatively weak control. On the other hand, cultures displaying more control show restraint. With a low score of 38, Tanzania is described as a culture of restraint, and hence actions are restrained by social norms and there is a perception that indulging oneself is somewhat wrong (Hofstede, 2015).

The aforementioned cultural practices are more deeply rooted among rural communities than in urban communities. The intensity of such practices also differs from tribe to tribe and among the degree of education in communities. These cultural practices and beliefs are also in the state of flux as younger generations are impacted by Western values, which may not be in line with traditional Tanzanian values. The effects of globalization, facilitated by the media and telecommunication technologies, have not only impacted the proliferation of Western values but also has influenced business, investment, and leadership in Tanzania. We discuss the current events related to business, investment, and leadership in the section that follows.

Current Events Related to Business, Investment, Leadership

The Tanzanian economy has been in good shape for several years. Real gross domestic product (GDP) grew by 7.3% in 2013 and 7.0% in 2014 (World Bank, 2014). The main contributors to growth were the construction, trade, agriculture, and transport sectors. The headline inflation continuously declined from over 20% in 2011 to 4% in January 2015, largely due to the combined impact of prudent monetary policy and recent decreases in global food and energy prices. Rising local food prices, however, have slightly increased the inflation rate since early 2015 (World Bank, 2014). Following the adoption of a market-based economic system, these economic developments have been supported by efforts of the government and other stakeholders to improve the business environment (Bagachwa, Mbelle, & Van Arkadie, 1992).

Several policies and laws aimed at supporting business development in the country exist and center around the Tanzania Development Vision 2025 (United Republic of Tanzania, 1999), a policy document that outlines a vision aimed to guide Tanzania’s development effort into the twenty-first century and achieve a certain level of development by the year 2025. Among the many laws, the Tanzania Investment Act of 1997 has played a central role in promoting investments in the country. This Act has motivated several initiatives by creating incentives for entrepreneurs and investors to invest in the country and has established an institutional mechanism for promoting investments, commonly called the Tanzania Investment Centre (United Republic of Tanzania, 1997).

Additional efforts to support business have resulted in the establishment of institutions, which have facilitated dialogue between government and the private sector, such as the Tanzania Chamber of Commerce established in 1988 and the Tanzania National Business Council (TNBC) established in 2001, under the chairmanship of the president. The role of TNBC is to assist the exchange of views between government and the private sector on business environment issues affecting the private sector. However, a key challenge with these institutions is the focus in terms of their represented interests. That is, these institutions tend to represent the interests of big business, while start-ups and small firms lack a clear spokesperson (United Nations Industrial Development Organization, 2012).

Owing to the socialist past, there are still barriers to entrepreneurship and business development that are being addressed through reforms. For example, not that long ago, more than 60 different laws and regulations were related to doing business in Tanzania (United Nations Industrial Development Organization, 2012). Despite these reforms to decrease the complexity in doing business, challenges still exist to conducting business with ease. The ranking of Tanzania has improved in the World Bank’s Ease of Doing Business report; nevertheless, more efforts are needed. In 2013, Tanzania ranked 134 out of 185 countries surveyed on the specific aspect of starting a business. The following two years (2014 and 2015), Tanzania was ranked 118th and 124th, respectively (World Bank, 2014).

A key factor in facilitating the ease of doing business is the quality of infrastructure in a country. According PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) (2013), the quality infrastructure in Tanzania differs between the four major modes of transport: air, road, rail, and sea. While it is well served by air, domestically and internationally, the railways are in bad shape and require significant investment to adequately serve domestic and neighboring markets by connecting them to international markets via seaports. Roads are also relatively good, but the low levels of rural connectivity tend to constrain development of agricultural and mining sectors. Finally, the port of Dar es Salaam is a major bottleneck, limiting the country’s ability to trade, not only from a capacity perspective but also efficiency, such as clearing shipments through customs appropriately. Overall, Tanzania’s infrastructure performs fairly well compared to its African peers, but quality is still poor, an aspect which has a negative impact on the economy’s productive capacity (PricewaterhouseCoopers, 2013).

The World Investment Report 2013 indicates that the global foreign direct investment (FDI) flows declined by 17.6% between 2011 (3329.5 billion USD) and 2012 (2741.9 billion USD) (Bank of Tanzania, 2013). However, during the same time, inflows to Africa increased from 47.6 billion USD in 2011 to 50.0 billion USD in 2012. Africa’s share of FDI inflows among developing economies rose from 6.5% to 7.1% in 2011 (Bank of Tanzania, 2014). Tanzania’s portion in Africa’s FDI inflows improved from 2.5% in 2011 to 3.4% in 2012, most of which came from ten major countries including, South Africa, the UK, and Canada accounting for 71.5% of the share. Most of the FDI from these countries went to mining and quarrying, manufacturing, finance, and the insurance sectors of the economy (Bank of Tanzania, 2013). Inflows from the developed countries (e.g. UK, Canada, Switzerland, the USA, and Luxemburg) reached 1586.1 million USD with the UK remaining as the leading source country since 2011. Inflows from emerging economies originated mainly from South Africa and Brazil, while those from developing economies came from Kenya and Botswana.

In the future, it is expected that investment in Tanzania will grow, particularly in the petroleum (oil and gas) sectors, due to the recent discovery of commercial quantities of gas both deep sea and offshore. Between 2012 and 2015, a significant amount of gas (53.2 trillion cubic feet) was uncovered (Tanzania Petroleum Development Corporation, 2015). In order to fully develop business and investment sectors in Tanzania, effective leadership is necessary. A brief review of the leadership literature is discussed next.

Review of Leadership Literature

Studies on leadership in Africa and Tanzania, like many other issues, can usually be grouped in the precolonial, colonial, and post-colonial eras. These periods have significantly shaped many social and economic issues at the time, as well as the role of leadership today (Masango, 2003). While the role of leadership is often categorized in relation to the precolonial, colonial, and post-colonialism eras, there are overlaps in the nature or characteristics of leadership between these periods. That is, some characteristics of the precolonial leadership era can still be seen in the elements of the post-colonial leadership. For example, the present day Masai in Tanzania still have the laigwani as a leader despite the existence of leaders who are functioning within the more modern set up of government. The term laigwani is itself derived from another term, engigwana, which means meeting. Laigwani is the one who chairs the meeting and addresses followers. This is a leader among the Masai who adjudicates cases and plays other administrative roles is society such as chairing key meetings aimed at resolving issues and other social duties. Interestingly, the laigwani role is still recognized in the modern government system although they do not command legal force. Traditional systems of leadership in Tanzania were either hereditary or achieved through recognition of benevolence and loyalty to the clan (Häussler, 2009). In these systems, a leader was viewed as someone who was a servant to the clan, tribe, community, or group. African people treated a leader by virtue of being a king, priest, or ruler chosen by the office in order to serve a nation (Masango, 2003).

In discussing the concept of leadership in Africa, Nahavandi cited by Masango (2003), points out three elements of leadership. The first element discusses leadership as a group phenomenon and suggests that there are no leaders without followers. As noted earlier, laigwani is the one who chairs the meeting and addresses followers. The followers must be willing to come to the meeting to be addressed and be bound by resolutions of the meeting, although followers might appeal at higher level meetings of the same tribe. A good laigwani is the one who is able to lead the meeting to sound resolutions that all parties are happy with and feel bound by them. In this sense, leadership always involves a degree of interpersonal influence and persuasion.

The second leadership element is that leaders use influence to guide groups of people through a certain course of action or toward the achievement of certain goals. In this sense, leadership is goal-directed. The final leadership element is that the presence of leadership assumes some form of hierarchy within a group. For example, in precolonial Africa, including Tanzania, the hierarchical structures were formal and well defined with a king or chief at the top of the structure ruling and leading the community (Masango, 2003).

Religion is another important aspect of African communities, including Tanzania, which influences leadership. Africans are said to be religious by nature (Masango, 2003). During precolonial times, Africans had their traditional religions in which leaders played a role as kings, chiefs, or priests. For example, the role of the religious leader is handled by oloiboni whose role includes messianic activities, naming age set groups, helping to uncover mysterious happenings in society, and assuage spiritual powers to perform certain acts beneficial to society, including helping to access rains and avert calamities. African religious ceremonies were led by leaders who acted as the custodians of religious heritage. Mbiti as cited by Masango (2003, p. 314) describes this role as follows, “they formulated religious beliefs, they observed religious ceremonies and rituals, they told proverbs and myths which carried religious meanings and they evolved laws and customs which safeguarded the life of the individual and his community or village”. This means, leaders directed the life and care of the community and in the process, played crucial roles in the evolution of societies’ governance institutions. They were also accountable to the whole community. For example, when leaders misbehaved in the community, they had to go through a process of correction by observing certain religious rites and were later forgiven by the community and the relationship was restored (Masango, 2003). Since practices vary in Tanzania given the tribal diversity, tribal communities had their own ways of addressing wrongdoing committed by leaders. Among the Masai where leaders occupy different positions depending on their seniority determined by age, senior leaders would administer processes to rectify the wrongs committed by juniors. The processes usually had a punitive element which varied depending on the magnitude of the wrong committed.

Research on leadership in Tanzania is extremely limited. Those studies that exist tend to present leadership in relation to politics of liberation, independence and, more recently, its role in development. Much of the existing formal writings on the subject have tended to approach leadership from a political or public administration perspective. Studies on leadership in the context of business organizations are rare. Most business enterprises were state-owned and hence leadership of business was fused with the political leadership. Thus, the leadership within organizations has typically been inextricably linked with political leadership. It is therefore not surprising that discussions about leadership in Tanzania have had this public sector approach.

Before Tanzania attained its independence, leaders officially held management and professional positions and were appointed by the colonial regime or traditional rulers who had been appointed into colonial administration, under the indirect rule system, were able to exercise authority over citizens. Mutahaba (2012, p. 1) notes: “At the unofficial level, ‘leaders’ were those who exercised power and enforced government orders and directives at different levels of governance.” When Tanzania became independent, any person was able to become a leader through the elective means. The number of management and administrative leaders with little linkage to the governed expanded as the state expanded its developmental role. Consequently, the term “leader” became associated with the occupation of a political and administrative position in government.

Taking this public leader approach, leadership is generally concerned with serving people. Nyerere, the first president of Tanzania, observed that leadership encompasses three main principles: stewardship, service, and accountability (Mayala, 2013). First, stewardship involves care and guidance and the recognition that there is a superior authority. A leader is entrusted with responsibility for the good of others.

Second, leadership is service, which means it requires generous self-giving. Nyerere (1974, p. 225) noted a leader needed to serve as an example since “the implementation of socialist objectives depends very much upon the leaders, because socialism is a belief in a particular system of living, and it is difficult for leaders to promote its growth if they do not themselves adhere to it”.

Finally, answerability and responsibility are integral to leadership. Leadership should provide an example of honesty and responsibility. Nyerere (1974, p. 248) noted, “leaders must set a good example to the rest of the people in their lives and in all their activities”. Nyerere (1966) pointed out that leadership had many aspects; however, the quality of mind was most important. That is, “the ability to think logically, the capacity to express himself clearly and concisely, the mastery of his job which enables him to understand fully the implications of his decisions, all these are the hallmarks of the competent leader” (Nyerere, 1966, p. 45).

More recently, the literature has suggested the role of transformational leadership and entrepreneurial leadership in Tanzania. Transformational leadership focuses on increasing the level of motivation of followers and appeals to followers’ values and emotions in an attempt to achieve a higher level of performance (Burns, 1978). On the other hand, transactional leadership motivates followers by appealing to their self-interest whereby follower compliance is exchanged for expected rewards. Given the importance of reforms in Tanzania, which requires greater performance and commitment from employees, there has been an interest in examining transformational leadership and its impact on employee motivation and commitment. Nguni, Sleegers, and Denessen (2006) found that the charismatic dimension of transformational leadership had the greatest impact on value commitment, organizational citizenship behavior, and job satisfaction among teachers compared to transactional leadership in Tanzania.

Interestingly, charisma is not a new attribute related to leadership effectiveness in Tanzania. For example, the political leaders, such as Nyerere possessed a charismatic leadership style (Mutahaba, 2012; Häussler, 2009). Mutahaba (2012) notes that after Tanzania’s independence, Nyerere deliberately focused on developing a vision for the country. Rather than using a transactional approach as prime minister, he worked with the party grassroots members in the government and focused on a development of a vision and strategy for overcoming the challenges facing the country. After being elected as president of Tanzania, his transformational approach was distinguished from transactional leaders. As a visionary and charismatic leader, Nyerere built the Tanzanian nation by implementing radical changes including emphasizing the use of Swahili as a national language, nationalization of religious denominated schools, and adopting the Arusha Declaration as a socialist path to development.

Finally, entrepreneurial leadership has increased in importance given Tanzania’s interest in economic development through enterprise development. African governments need to develop the internal capacity to help potential entrepreneurs develop the necessary entrepreneurial leadership skills to recognize opportunities and sustain successful business enterprises. In a qualitative study of the entrepreneurial leadership in Tanzania, Mapunda (2007) found that the primary driving force of entrepreneurial leadership is making a positive difference in society as opposed to profit maximization.

Based on the literature above, one can see that leadership in Tanzania is complex given the presence of precolonial traditions in the post-colonial leadership era. Furthermore, the transition from a socialist economy to a market-based economy has also encouraged a more entrepreneurial leadership style. To further complement the above leadership literature review, we discuss the views of insiders (local Tanzanians leaders) and outsiders (foreign nationals working in Tanzania) with respect to leadership.

Insiders’ and Outsiders’ Perspectives (True Names Disguised)

Insiders’ Perspectives

Dr. Jane Mukwale, Lecturer of University of Dar es Salaam, is a female lecturer at the University of Dar es Salaam with 16 years of work experience in teaching, research, and consultancy. She has two employees reporting to her. In her view, the leadership style in Tanzania is characterized as a laissez-faire approach with democratic tendencies. Leaders appear to lack strategic direction in terms of leading the country or institutions as demonstrated by the failure to plan and absence of creative ideas. In her view, that is the reason why Tanzanian leaders tend to copy ideas from other places and apply them to their own situation. They also tend to be reactive in most cases rather than being proactive. While leaders’ exhibit a relaxed approach, subordinates expect to be directed and pushed in order to fulfill their responsibilities.

Unlike Tanzanian leaders, Dr. Mukwale believed that foreign managers exhibit different leadership styles often characterized by management by results. That is, they are concerned with results or outcomes and therefore insist on agreement on key performance indicators. In that sense, foreign leaders are clear about what they expect and hence display a democratic leadership style since the agreement on deliverables is necessary. This, in turn, becomes a binding commitment to both sides.

Foreign managers, however, have the wrong belief that local people are lazy [which is an over-generalization]. On the contrary, Tanzanian followers monitor key performance indicators. When leaders are clear about expectations, followers can direct their efforts toward the achievement of results. Foreign and local managers, nevertheless, have similar attitudes toward employees in that they feel they are the bosses and have the authority to make decisions.

Dr. Mukwale believes that the most effective leadership in Tanzania needs to be authoritative and visionary. A leader who can stand firm on his or her beliefs and enforce what is agreed is the most effective leader. She observes, “the reason why [sic] we have reached here as a country is because of the lack of firm leadership”. Dr. Mukwale’s advice to foreign leaders visiting Tanzania is that they should practice participatory leadership. Also, they should be more open to share ideas and effective practices so that Tanzanians could learn from them. For young upcoming leaders, Dr. Mukwale’s advice is that they should adopt democratic leadership styles. They should further develop a culture of being responsible and take ownership of their behaviors and decisions.

Mr. Samson Muite, Chief Internal Auditor, is 46 years old and works for one of the leading banks in Tanzania as the chief internal auditor. His work experience spans 19 years. At the time of the interview, he had about 30 employees reporting to him. Mr. Muite describes leadership style in Tanzania as being collectivist in decision making. Leadership in Tanzania also has elements of fear. Subordinates fear their bosses, and as a result do not tell their bosses the truth. Similarly, bosses do not want to tell their subordinates the truth, especially where their performance is poor. Mr. Muite noted: “Since we do not like to blame anyone, we create a situation that looks like decisions are reached through consensus”.

Mr. Muite also observed that most of the time subordinates prefer to be directed. In comparing the leadership styles of Tanzanian leaders to those from one country in Europe, he notes that “the main difference is that foreign managers are open, tell the truth, do not care whether they anger others. Although, they provide room to discuss issues, they also expect you to offer honest feedback”.

Mr. Muite expressed the view that the most effective leadership style in Tanzania is one where leaders practice openness and integrity. In his view, open and engaging leadership is the most effective approach. Tanzanian leadership, therefore, needs to change toward more openness and engagement. His advice to foreign managers coming to Tanzania is that they should be careful with comments they receive from their subordinates: “sometimes people tell you what you want to hear instead of what they believe in. Foreign leaders should confirm whether what they are being told is correct”. While noting that this is sometimes a challenge, Mr. Muite posited that it can be addressed by asking the right questions while probing issues.

When asked about advice he would give to young emerging leaders, Mr. Muite noted that emerging leaders should be encouraged to be honest and open in giving feedback and learn to “call a spade a spade”. He also suggested that young leaders should spend time coaching others and especially providing positive feedback to their subordinates. It is important for young leaders to advise their followers the areas that need development. Finally, emerging leaders need to continuously learn by using such tools as YouTube and Google.

Miss Catherine Wanjiku, Director of a Government Agency, is one of the directors in a key government agency who oversees 25 employees. She is 52 years old and has 29 years of work experience. In her view, leadership style in Tanzania is team-centered, directive, and consensus-oriented. She noted that bosses are assumed to know every important thing. Tanzania’s leadership style tends to be more masculine reflecting male chauvinism. This is especially the case with some tribes that come from certain parts of the country such as, the Lake area.

Miss Wanjiku has traveled to many countries and was able to compare the leadership styles in Tanzania with styles in other countries such as the USA, the UK, Mauritius, South Africa, Kenya, and Uganda. She noted that although cultural differences influenced the leadership styles in the various countries, leadership styles were not significantly different from each other, with the exception of Uganda which has a very submissive culture.

Unlike the insiders’ perspectives above, Miss Wanjiku expanded on the effective leadership style for women and emphasized the need to maintain balance. To illustrate her point, she noted that while women may not rebuke a man directly, they can give instructions in writing. She contended, “one needs to combine both styles, that is, be formal via writing but get the message across”. It is important to tend toward formality, such as asking for written feedback/report.

Finally, Miss Wanjiku suggested foreign leaders visiting Tanzania need to be aware of small cultural but yet sensitive nuances when conducting business in Tanzania. Her advice to emerging leaders is the importance of communication with subordinates; openness when engaging in decision making and planning; and, finally, embracing gender diversity. Miss Wanjiku expanded on the need for men to accept women as leaders. That said, women should also recognize their limitations such as dual responsibilities as a mother and leader, which could affect their leadership styles.

Outsiders’ Perspectives

Dr. Colemann, Coordinator for an International Project, is 33 years old and comes from Germany. He has been in Tanzania for three years and has five employees reporting to him. He has lived in other countries as well: six months in Pakistan, six months in the UK, and ten years in Austria. In his view, one similarity with other countries in terms of leadership is the lack of vision, imagination, and inspiration. Unlike the speeches by President Barack Obama of the USA which give hope to others, there is a lack of vision and inspiration in Germany and Tanzania.

Similarly, the leadership styles with respect to bureaucracy are comparable in Germany and Tanzania. Unlike Germany, Dr. Colemann views leadership in Tanzania as very hierarchical which uses a top-down approach whereby lower staff are unable to bring their views into discussion. People also tend to follow their leaders without questioning them and there is no critical assessment; he noted, “even the village structure is centered on the chief. So I think it comes from there”. The leadership style is characterized as a “strong man” type of leadership. In addition, age and seniority also impacts leadership styles in Tanzania.

In Tanzania, there is also no leadership by example. In his view, leaders should “make their hands dirty” and show their subordinates how things are done. Mr. Colemann believes that there is a tendency for Tanzanian leaders to give orders that are empty directions—that is, orders do not mean anything since they are not able to be implemented.

According to Dr. Colemann, an effective leader is one who leads by example, is proactive, takes risks by trying out, encourages fresh and innovative ideas, and gives people room for maneuvering. He stated that “there is no need to be a control freak”. The leadership challenges that Dr. Colemann personally experienced in Tanzania include unclear leadership, contradictory commands, and extreme hierarchy. His advice to foreigners coming to Tanzania is to never disregard hierarchy and find like-minded people in the organization. He noted, “There is no need to drag a dead horse”. Finally, he advised that foreigners should be approachable. Rather than chair every small meeting, he suggested, “Grab a cup of coffee and brainstorm”.

Miss Rosemary, Chief Executive Officer of Heaven to Earth AFRICA, is 49 years old and married to a Tanzanian. Her country of birth is Cameroon. At the time of the interview, she had been in Tanzania for four years and had five employees reporting to her. Apart from residing in Tanzania, Miss Rosemary has lived in the UK for five years and sixteen years in Nigeria. Her views with respect to the similarities in leadership styles in Cameroon with Tanzania supports the perspective that an African leadership style is unique but evolving because of inputs from other countries as a result of overseas experience. Miss Rosemary stressed that leadership styles in the two African countries are related to culture and both emphasize the respect of elders and subordination of women. In terms of differences with her home country, Rosemary noted that Tanzanian women have been given leadership positions, including being ambassadors to the USA and other countries. She views women in Tanzania as being more empowered which may be related to the respect of political terms in leadership which provides the possibility for good governance.

When asked about the effective leadership style in Tanzania, she contended that combining good practices from other parts of the world with Tanzania will be effective. The challenge is that there is a lack of training in leadership skills in Tanzania to bring about new experiences. Miss Rosemary also noted the lack of mentorship and social programs. One of the leadership challenges she experienced in Tanzania is that leaders are sometimes too busy to listen to people. Yet, leaders need to serve the people. For example, in Arusha, they did not ask people how they wanted the city to look and went about changing the city without getting input from the people. The other challenge is that the voices of women and youth are not heard by the leaders because men tend to speak for them. She claimed that men did not give them a chance to learn in a participatory process.

Her advice to other foreigners going to Tanzania is to look at the local realities and respect them. Foreigners should also adapt to the context not just try to change the people they find in the country. For example, Tanzanians take “pole pole” approach (“slowly slowly”), so if you push too much you will be frustrated.

Mr. James Paul, Advisor of an International NGO, is from Great Britain. He is 63 years old and has 3 employees reporting to him. His international experience is rich as he lived overseas for about 20 years handling various assignments in Gabon, Nigeria, and Egypt. He viewed leadership styles in Tanzania and the UK to be similar on the need for status, respect, and job security. In his opinion, the leadership practice tended to reflect these elements in both countries. In terms of differences, he viewed the leadership style in Tanzania as being very hierarchical with leaders not always looking to grow junior staff effectively. This is different in the UK where leadership is less hierarchical and there is effort to groom young leaders. Also, there is much greater evidence of corruption in Tanzania compared to the UK.

His perception of effective leadership styles in Tanzania is that one needs to be patient and not always rush to solutions. Regarding leadership challenges, leaders want to look out for themselves and do not always look at what is best for the common good. A leader’s priorities may not fully be in line with perceived business priorities. His advice regarding leadership style for other foreigners going to Tanzania is to be patient, lead by example, and be clear on expectations. He also suggested that foreigners should help local management teams grow in capacity by being open and encouraging, and sharing good practices while not tolerating malpractice.

Summary

Given the recent investment opportunities, one can expect that Tanzania will become an important player in the African and international business context. Consequently, there will be a greater need to better understand leadership in Tanzania. However, due to Tanzania’s interesting cultural diversity and colonial history, as well as the transition from a socialist economy to a market system, understanding leadership in the country can be complex.

Tanzanian businesses are seen as bureaucracies with little opportunity for experimentation. However, there is also recognition that the most effective leadership style in Tanzania includes openness and risk taking. Recent policies are in place to further promote economic growth through entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurs are rewarded for starting a small business which requires a certain degree of calculated risk. The general business environment is improving; however, it is still relatively difficult to conduct business in Tanzania. Strong and committed leadership is required to further improve the business environment and hence the metrics.

While Tanzania has seen changes in leadership styles over the years, some aspects remain important and are influenced by its culture. Tanzania’s high power distance has shaped a top-down approach to leadership that is seen among tribal leaders and priests, as well as the importance of social status that is associated with education, age, and gender in organizations. Subordinates are expected to defer to their leaders regarding decision making, elders and men are held in high regard. While these aspects are still strong among certain communities, urbanization, which often goes hand-in-hand with modernization, is having a neutralizing effect.

In addition, Tanzania’s collectivist culture remains strong from precolonial days until today. Effective leaders in Tanzania display a long-term commitment to the members of a group. Leaders are expected to safeguard the life of the individual and the community. Similarly, subordinates are expected to be loyal to their group. Finally, charismatic leadership is an effective style in Tanzania. The importance of charisma is not a new attribute related to leadership effectiveness in Tanzania. Many successful political leaders, including Neyeye, were considered charismatic leaders. These leaders communicated a vision, mission, and strategy to overcome challenges and moved forward.

Note

  1. 1.

    CCM was formed in 1977 as a result of a merger between the Tanganyika National Union (TANU) and the Afro Shirazi Party (ASP). TANU and ASP led their then respective countries of Tanganyika and Zanzibar into independence in 1961 and 1964, respectively, after which the two countries merged to form the present Tanzania.