Abstract
This chapter works through the dynamics of counterterrorism policy in Pakistan in relation to its inconsistent and often contradictory political imaginary and other postcolonial formulations. It sketches some of these contours and reveals Pakistan’s unevenness towards religious and secular modernities; inequitable patterns of social, political, and economic development; and problematic regional relations. The chapter then examines Pakistan’s approach toward counterterrorism since 9/11 and subsequent changes in counterterrorism policies after the 2015 Peshawar school bombings, which culminated in the National Action Plan. These discussions are framed within the broader sociopolitical entanglements in which Pakistan and its people are enmeshed, including changes within daily public and social life. Without diminishing the persistent reality of terrorism in Pakistan, the chapter concludes by arguing that Pakistan’s counterterrorism policies risk being formulated solely based on oversimplified narratives of national security and increasing state legibility without a deeper appreciation of the social, political, and intellectual lives of its citizens, and their aspirations for the future.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
- 1.
The ISI is Pakistan’s feared intelligence agency that in coordination with the Pakistani military is often touted as being a “state within a state” (Al Jazeera 2012; Wash 2009). The ISI is accused of maintaining close ties with various Taliban factions and terrorist organizations in the region pursuing what the organization claims to be Pakistan’s strategic “interests,” making it a controversial actor in the Global War on Terror for Western protagonists and for Pakistanis themselves.
- 2.
The Muslim Ummah refers to the wider brotherhood of Muslims, which extends far beyond the nation-state.
- 3.
Bankoff (2003) argues that terrorism is only the most recent in a long line of dangerous conditions that have come to represent how certain areas of the non-Western world are usually imagined and subsequently depicted as regions of risk, part of a much wider Western discourse invoked to describe unfamiliar cultures and landscapes. Previous versions include “tropicality,” “development,” and “vulnerability.” He argues that although terrorism shares with previous discourses the same essentializing and generalizing cultural depiction of large regions of the world as regions of risk, it also possesses certain novel properties of significance. Unlike disease, poverty, and hazard, terrorism and its close association with Islam is much more “exportable,” bringing the condition of criminality from the borderlands directly home.
- 4.
- 5.
- 6.
An important consequence of frequent unexpected terrorist attacks is the constriction of public space and fear of expression of social and political life (Mumtaz 2010). Public events in urban Pakistan (cultural, social, religious) now employ multiple layers of security and surveillance as do hotels, restaurants, and schools (Ayub 2014; Aziz 2015; Wise 2012).
- 7.
Pakistan and India have fought three wars over the control of Kashmir, which to this day remains a disputed territory. In the heydays of the Kashmir liberation struggle, Pakistan was suspected of training and arming Kashmiri proxy groups to infiltrate the LoC into Indian territory for various military campaigns. Similarly, Pakistan also encouraged surplus fighters following Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan to move to the Kashmir theatre. While the nature of the Kashmir liberation struggle has substantially changed, many believe that the same armed groups, once referred to as “Freedom Fighters” in the context of the Kashmiri struggle, have shifted their militant activities into mainland India and Pakistan.
- 8.
The Durand Line is a 1,529-mile long porous border between Afghanistan and Pakistan. Pakistan has been under heavy criticism for not regulating transnational movement across the border, which is routinely exploited by both the Afghan Taliban, and their sympathizers, the Haqqani network, who plan attacks in both nation-states from their sanctuaries in Pakistan’s semiautonomous tribal areas.
- 9.
Even though Pakistan’s provinces and administrative divisions are drafted along ethnic lines, the provinces themselves are far from homogenous. Ethnic groups typically lack official recognition from the state and the fair integration of their cultural, spiritual, and social systems into state institutions such as in school curriculums and matters of language (Ayres 2009; Dean 2005; Rahman 2008).
- 10.
Contrary to this analysis, Yusuf (2014) argues that non-state armed groups in Pakistan have actually managed to rise above their ethnic and linguistic ties. He explains that for example even though the TTP is largely composed of ethnic Pashtuns, the armed group has killed more than 600 tribal elders and dismantled numerous jirgas (local assemblies of tribal leaders and judiciary courts) which are essential to ethnic Pashtun claims of place making and governance. The TTP, according to Yusuf’s (2014) analysis, gain support by “creating a leadership vacuum in the traditional tribal society” than relying on ethnic and linguistic ties (p. 19). Similarly, Pakistan’s Punjabi Taliban or the Al-Qaeda have rarely sought support based on ethnicity.
- 11.
Like other mysteries of statecraft, the term “strategic interests” require further intellectual unpacking in relation to statehood, foreign policy, and governance.
- 12.
However, Pakistan’s historically unresolved stance toward such groups provided the Afghan Taliban ample opportunity to exploit the fluid nature of the Durand Line, the financial resources of Al-Qaeda, and the regional memory of a previous jihad. They successfully established strategic bases in Pakistan’s tribal areas (FATA), which they used to launch offensives against international forces in Afghanistan as well as targets within Pakistan.
- 13.
Interview with General Pervez Musharraf, Financial Times, October 26, 2005.
- 14.
Pakistan’s military incursion in its tribal areas as in the previous Swat incursion is often understood as the Pakistani military killing its own people. This view is also shared by some segments of the military. Dr. Humeria Iqtidar from King’s College London reminds us that the Pakistani military is not a cohesive, monolithic entity as generally thought but there are often disconnects between the top brass and the soldiers within whom “there is immense cynicism and there is immense despair” (Fielding-Smith et al. 2015).
- 15.
In order to facilitate the speedy conviction of suspected terrorists, the Pakistani Parliament amended the country’s constitution to set up numerous military courts to try civilian terrorism suspects and lifted the moratorium on death penalty. Concerned about the transparency of these convictions and the right to appeal, this was met with stiff resistance from human rights lawyers and their allies. In April 2015, Pakistan’s Supreme Court suspended death sentences handed down by the country’s new military courts and stated that those convicted by military courts had the right to appeal (Al Jazeera 2015a).
- 16.
In the weeks following the Peshawar attacks some 147 individuals (including suspected militants, civilians, and security personnel) were killed as a result of increased military operations (Chughtahi and Hashim 2015).
- 17.
In a recent news report published in the Urdu daily Dunya, Lahore’s chief traffic officer Hafiz Cheema was cited as identifying 36 areas deemed high risk for terrorism majority of which were Pakthun-dominated areas. Similarly, Pakistan’s Interior Minister dispelled accusations of ethnic bias and racism after a recent order to clear Afghan illegal settlements from the outskirts of Pakistan’s capital city claiming that it had become a “safe haven for terrorists.”
- 18.
- 19.
- 20.
The “good Taliban” were those who didn’t attack Pakistan. They were “non-state actors” and “strategic assets” useful to further Pakistan’s “strategic depth” in Afghanistan or attack targets in “enemy” India (Sarwar 2014).
- 21.
Islamabad’s Red Mosque under the leadership of Maulana Aziz is no stranger to controversy. In 2007, elite commandos under the direction of then-President Pervez Musharraf stormed the mosque after students there burned a government building, kidnapped police officers, and carried out a vigilante campaign to enforce sharia law in Islamabad. Stockpiles of weapons were found inside the mosque and numerous students were killed in the military operation. Exact figures of the number killed remain unknown, it was reported that bodies of dead students were buried in mass graves. Till today information on the number of dead is withheld from the public. In 2014, Aziz renamed the mosque and seminary’s library after Osama bin Laden (BBC 2014). The 4,000 female-student madrassa affiliated with the mosque complex recently also launched a video message in Arabic declaring allegiance to ISIS and welcomes the implementation of Sharia law in Pakistan (Mir 2014).
- 22.
On the eve of the Peshawar attack, the radical cleric Moulana Aziz refused to condemn the school attack on national television justifying it as a response to children killed in Pakistani army operations. The next day, outraged Pakistanis gathered on the street outside the mosque calling for an apology. The protest resulted in a confrontation between students from the mosque and the protesters. Under severe public pressure, Aziz condemned the incident the next day but also prayed in his Friday sermon that the Pakistani military, the Pakistani Taliban, and the Afghan Taliban would unite, and remained agnostic on condemning the Taliban and questioned who the “real” perpetrators of the massacre were (Naviwala 2015). Hundreds of peaceful protesters and journalists returned to the Red Mosque for a third day to find the mosque cordoned off and protected by police. An ongoing movement demanding the arrest of the cleric is underway.
- 23.
Another trend has been the reduction of terrorism to calculations of risk and probabilities. The recently launched PredictifyMe, a startup relying on “big data” does just that. The analytics company is partnering with the United Nations in an initiative to use “data” from past school bombing to generate algorithms which can predict school attacks in the future (Kavilanz 2015).
References
Abbas, H. (2004). Pakistan’s drift into extremism: Allah, the army, and America’s war on terror. New York: ME Sharpe.
Abbas Zaidi, S. M. (2010). Understanding the appeal of the Taliban in Pakistan. Journal of Strategic Security, 3(3), 1–14.
Agathangelou, A. M., & Ling, L. H. (2004). Power, borders, security, wealth: Lessons of violence and desire from September 11. International Studies Quarterly, 48(3), 517–538.
Aijazi, O. (2010). The extra-religious functions of madaris: Implications for community planning in Pakistan. Unpublished Masters thesis. University of British Columbia.
Aijazi, O., & Angeles, L. C. (2014). Community development and other extra-religious functions of Islamic schools: A contemporary perspective from the voices of stakeholders in two madrassas in Pakistan. Community Development, 45(5), 490–506.
Akhtar, A. (2013). The other story of Pakistan. Acumen Blogs. http://acumen.org/blog/the-other-story-of-pakistan/.
Akhter, M. (2015). Infrastructures of colonialism and resistance. Tanqeed: A Magazine of Politics and Culture (9).
Al Jazeera. (2012, February). Profile: Pakistan’s ISI. Retrieved from http://www.aljazeera.com/news/asia/2012/02/2012218213493884.html.
Al Jazeera. (2014, March). Pakistani madrassas reined in by government. Al Jazeera. Retrieved from http://www.aljazeera.com/news/asia/2014/03/pakistan-madrassas-reined-government-201432124518842809.html.
Al Jazeera. (2015a, April). Pakistan halts executions given by military courts. Al Jazeera. Retrieved from http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/04/pakistan-halts-executions-handed-military-courts-150416091421734.html.
Al Jazeera. (2015b, April). Pakistan: Victim of exporter of terror. Head on Head. http://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/headtohead/2015/03/pakistan-exporting-terror-150324130451504.html.
Altaf, S. W. (2011). So much aid, so little development: Stories from Pakistan. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
AP. (2009, October). Harried Pakistanis find respite in “Mama Mia”. News Max World. Retrieved from http://www.newsmax.com/World/Asia/Pakista-Broadway-play-show/2009/10/30/id/452122/.
AP. (2015, February). Terrorists to “lose big weapon” as Pakistan tightens mobile phone control. Dawn News. Retrieved from http://www.dawn.com/news/1166052.
Ayoob, M. (1995). The Third World security predicament: State making, regional conflict, and the international system. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.
Ayres, A. (2009). Speaking like a state: Language and nationalism in Pakistan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ayub, I. (2014, May). Private guards’ strength is more than double of police in Karachi. Dawn News. Retrieved from http://www.dawn.com/news/1108988/private-guards-strength-is-more-than-double-of-police-in-karachi.
Azeem, M. (2015, May). High tech surveillance system to be launched in Islamabad. Dawn News. Retrieved from: http://www.dawn.com/news/1108273.
Aziz, U. (2015, January). Garrison-like schools do little to satisfy jittery parents, students. Pakistan Today. Retrieved from http://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2015/01/13/city/lahore/garrison-like-schools-do-little-to-satisfy-jittery-parents-students/.
Bankoff, G. (2003). Regions of risk: Western discourses on terrorism and the significance of Islam. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 26(6), 413–428.
Barkawi, T., & Laffey, M. (2006). The postcolonial moment in security studies. Review of International Studies, 32(02), 329–352.
BBC. (2013, October). Secret memos “Show Pakistan endorsed US drone strikes.” BBC. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-24649840.
BBC. (2014, April). Pakistan library named “Bin Laden” in Islamic school. BBC. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-27078194.
Bengali, S., & Sahi, A. (2015, December). Where San Bernardino shooter Tashfeen Malik went to school to learn about Islam. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved from http://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-school-san-bernardino-fundamentalist-20151207-story.html.
Bigo, D., & Tsoukala, A. (Eds.). (2008). Terror, insecurity and liberty: Illiberal practices of liberal regimes after 9/11. New York: Routledge.
Booth, K. (2008). The human faces of terror: Reflections in a cracked looking-glass. Critical Studies on Terrorism, 1(1), 65–79.
Buneri, S. (2011). Life in Swat valley. Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting. http://pulitzercenter.org/slideshows/pakistan-swat-valley.
Burki, S. J. (1988). Pakistan under Zia, 1977-1988. Asian Survey, 28 (10), 1082–1100.
Butler, J. (2004). Precarious life: The powers of violence and mourning. London & New York: Verso.
Butler, J. (2009). Frames of war: When is life grieveable? London & New York: Verso.
Cahall, B. (2013, August). Pakistan drafts ambitious counterterrorism policy, first in 13 years. Foreign Policy. Retrieved from http://foreignpolicy.com/2013/08/13/pakistan-drafts-ambitious-counterterrorism-policy-first-in-13-years/.
Carment, D., & Samy, Y. (2012). Assessing state fragility: A country indicators for foreign policy report. Country Indicators for Foreign Policy. Norman Paterson School of International Affairs, Carlton University, Ottawa, Canada.
Cheema, A. N. (2013). Upcoming picture of ageing population: Pakistan. Quality & Quantity, 47(5), 2399–2413.
Chicago Project on Security and Terrorism. (2015). Suicide attack database. Retrieved from http://cpostdata.uchicago.edu/search_new.php.
Chowdhry, A. (2013, August). Pakistan security powerless as eid prayers targeted by suicide bombers. The Globe and Mail. Retrieved from http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/pakistan-security-powerless-as-eid-prayers-targeted-by-suicide-bombers/article13702543/.
Chughtahi, A., & Hashim, A. (2015, January). Peshawar school massacre: The aftermath. Al Jazeera. Retrieved from http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/interactive/2015/01/peshawar-army-school-massacre-aftermath-201511618278953555.html#.VLrLLDlJcBA.facebook.
Cohen, S. P. (2004). The idea of Pakistan. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
Coll, S. (2004). Ghost wars: The secret history of the CIA, Afghanistan, and Bin Laden, from the Soviet invasion to September 10, 2001. New York: Penguin.
Coll, S. (2014, November). The unblinking stare: The drone war in Pakistan. The New Yorker. Retrieved from http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/11/24/unblinking-stare.
Daily Times. (2015, August). Civil society protests against Islamabad slum eviction. Daily Times. Retrieved from http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/punjab/01-Aug-2015/civil-society-protests-against-islamabad-slum-evictions.
Dawn News. (2011, June). War on terror cost Pakistan $ 67.9 billion. Dawn News. Retrieved from http://www.dawn.com/news/637894/war-on-terror-cost-pakistan-679-billion.
Dawn News (2015, August). Islamabad slum action AWP speaks out for the eviction. Dawn News. Retrieved from http://www.dawn.com/news/1200147.
Dean, B. L. (2005). Citizenship education in Pakistani schools: Problems and possibilities. International Journal of citizenship and Teacher education, 1(2), 35.
Devji, F. (2008). Red mosque. Public Culture, 20(1), 19–26.
Duffield, M. (2001). Global governance and the new wars: The merging of development and security. London: Zed books.
Duffield, M. (2007). Development, security and unending war: Governing the world of peoples. Cambridge: Polity.
Esposjto, J. L. (1982). Islamization: Religion and politics in Pakistan. The Muslim World, 72(3–4), 197–223.
Etsy, D. C., Goldstone, J. A., Gurr, T. R., Harff, B., Levy, M., Dabelko, G. D., Unger, A. N. (1999). State failure task force report: Phase II findings. Environmental Change & Security Project Report, (5).
European Union. (2003). A secure Europe in a better world: European security strategy. Brussels: European Union.
Express Tribune. (2010, October). Drone attack ambiguities. The Express Tribune. Retrieved from http://tribune.com.pk/story/67101/drone-attack-ambiguities/.
Express Tribune. (2015a, August). Demanding rights: Activists protest against slum eviction drive in Islamabad. The Express Tribune. Retrieved from http://tribune.com.pk/story/932270/demanding-rights-activists-protest-against-slum-eviction-drive-in-islamabad/.
Express Tribune. (2015b, April). COAS recognizes sacrifices of soldiers confers gallantry awards. The Express Tribune. Retrieved from http://tribune.com.pk/story/869840/coas-recognises-sacrifices-of-soldiers-confers-gallantry-awards/.
Fazal, T. (1999). Religion and language in the formation of nationhood in Pakistan and Bangladesh. Sociological Bulletin, 48(1 and 2), 175–199.
Fielding-Smith, A., Bennett-Jones, O., & Serle, J. (2015). Drone News from the Bureau: Episode 33. Retrieved from http://www.hipcast.com/podcast/HcrwzKms.
Flintoff, C. (2010, August). In Pakistan, militants use flood aid to seek support. NPR. Retrieved from http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=129379169.
Gall, C. (2005, October). In a remote camp, help from an unconventional source. New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/18/world/asia/in-a-remote-camp-help-from-an-unconventional-source.html?_r=0.
Gall, C. (2008, September). Bombing at hotel in Pakistan kills at least 40. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/21/world/asia/21islamabad.html.
Gangult, S. (2008, October). Danger ahead for the most dangerous place on earth. The Washington Post. Retrieved from http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/10/09/AR2008100901206.html.
Gardezi, H. N., & Rashid, J. (Eds.). (1983). Pakistan, the roots of dictatorship: The political economy of a praetorian state. London: Zed Press.
Gilmartin, D. (1998). Partition, Pakistan, and South Asian history: In search of a narrative. The Journal of Asian Studies, 57(04), 1068–1095.
Gunning, J. (2007). A case for critical terrorism studies? Government and Opposition, 42(3), 363–393.
Hanif, M. (2010, August). In Pakistan, echoes of American betrayal. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/01/opinion/01hanif.html?_r=0.
Haq, F. (1995). Rise of the MQM in Pakistan: Politics of ethnic mobilization. Asian Survey, 35(11), 990–1004.
Haqqani, H. (2004). The role of Islam in Pakistan’s future. Washington Quarterly, 28(1), 83–96.
Henley, J. (2014, December). The Taliban’s “alarmingly efficient” war on education. The Guardian. Retrieved from http://www.theguardian.com/world/shortcuts/2014/dec/21/taliban-alarmingly-efficient-war-education-peshawar-attack.
Hönke, J., & Müller, M. M. (2012). Governing (in) security in a postcolonial world: Transnational entanglements and the worldliness of ‘local’practice. Security Dialogue, 43(5), 383.
Hoti, A. (2015, March). In Pakistan, we are not so different from you. The World Post. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/amineh-hoti/pakistan-terrorism-peshawar_b_6904650.html.
Hussain, S., & Zahra-Malik, M. (2014). Political instability and its implications for an effective national counterterrorism policy in Pakistan. In M. Yusuf (Ed.), Pakistan’s counterterrorism challenge (pp. 83–102). Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.
Hussain, Z. (2007). Frontline Pakistan: Struggle with militant Islam. London, UK: I. B. Tauris.
Imran, R. (2013). Legal Injustices: The Zina Hudood ordinance of Pakistan and its implications for women. Journal of International Women’s Studies, 7(2), 78–100.
International Crisis Group (ICG). (2006). Pakistan’s Tribal Areas: Appeasing the militants. Asia Report, 125. Retrieved from http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/regions/asia/south-asia/pakistan/125-pakistans-tribal-areas-appeasing-themilitants.aspx.
International Crisis Group (ICG). (2014). Education reform in Pakistan. Brussels: International Crisis Group. Retrieved from http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/asia/south-asia/pakistan/257-education-reform-in-pakistan.pdf.
International Human Rights and Conflict Resolution Clinic at Stanford Law School (IHRCRC) and Global Justice Clinic and NYU School of Law (GJC). (2012). Living under drones: Death, injury and trauma to civilians from U.S drone practice in Pakistan. Retrieved from: http://www.livingunderdrones.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Stanford-NYU-Living-Under-Drones.pdf.
Iqtidar, H. (2012). State management of religion in Pakistan and dilemmas of citizenship. Citizenship Studies, 16(8), 1013–1028.
Jafar, A. (2005). Women, Islam, and the state in Pakistan. Gender Issues, 22(1), 35–55.
Jaffrelot, C. (Ed.). (2002). Pakistan: Nationalism without a nation. New York: Zed Books.
Jaffrelot, C. (Ed.). (2004). A history of Pakistan and its origins. New York: Anthem Press.
Jalal, A. (1995). Democracy and authoritarianism in South Asia: A comparative and historical perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Jarvis, L. (2009). The spaces and faces of critical terrorism studies. Security Dialogue, 40(1), 5–27.
Kavilanz, P. (2015, March). This startup could help thwart school bombings. CNN. Retrieved from http://money.cnn.com/2015/03/26/smallbusiness/predictifyme-school-bombings/index.html?iid=SF_T_River.
Kfir, I. (2014). Sectarian violence and social group identity in Pakistan. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 37(6), 457–472.
Khan, A. (2002). Pakistan’s Sindhi ethnic nationalism: Migration, marginalization, and the threat of “Indianization”. Asian Survey, 42(2), 213–229.
Khan, M. (2015a, February). Legibility as a political project. Tanqeed: Magazine of Politics and Culture. Retrieved from http://www.tanqeed.org/2015/02/legibility-as-political-project-tq-salon/.
Khan, N. (Ed.). (2010). Beyond crisis: Re-evaluating Pakistan. India: Routledge.
Khan, S. (2011). FATA’s political status: What are the consequences and options for Pakistan? Strategic Insights, 10(2), 35–38.
Khan, S. (2015b, May). Closing the gates of Lahore. Herald. Retrieved from http://herald.dawn.com/news/1153043/closing-the-gates-of-lahore.
Kirk, G. S. (2014). Working class zombies and men in Burqas: Temporality, trauma, and the specter of nostalgia in Zibahkhana. BioScope: South Asian Screen Studies, 5(2), 141–151.
Krishna, S. (1999). Postcolonial insecurities: India, Sri Lanka, and the question of nationhood. Minnesota, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
Kumar, M. P. (2008). Imagining the terrorist: Racialization of Asian identities since 9/11. Kasarinlan: Philippine Journal of Third World Studies, 22(2), 4–21.
Kutsch, T. (2013, October). Documents reveal Pakistan approved US drone strikes. Al Jazeera. Retrieved from http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2013/10/24/new-documents-showpakistanascomplicityinusdroneprogram.html.
Lall, M. (2012). Citizenship in Pakistan: State, nation and contemporary fault lines. Contemporary Politics, 18(1), 71–86.
Lancaster, J., & Khan, K. (2005, October). Extremists fill aid chasm after Quake. Washington Post. Retrieved from http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/10/15/AR2005101501392.html.
Lieven, A. (2011). Pakistan: A hard country. London: Penguin Books.
Looney, R. (2004). Failed economic take-offs and terrorism in Pakistan: Conceptualizing a proper role for US assistance. Asian Survey, 44(6), 771–793.
López-Cálix, J. R., Srinivasan, T. G., & Waheed, M. (2012). What do we know about growth patterns in Pakistan? World Bank, Washington, DC: World Bank. Retrieved from https://www.openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/17875.
Malik, I. (1997). State and civil society in Pakistan: Politics of authority, ideology and ethnicity. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press.
Malik, S., & Wahid, J. (2014). Rapid urbanization: Problems and challenges for adequate housing in Pakistan. Journal of Sociology, 2(2), 87–110.
Mamdani, M. (2002). Good Muslim, bad Muslim: A political perspective on culture and terrorism. American Anthropologist, 104(3), 766–775.
Marsden, M. (2008). Muslim cosmopolitans? Transnational life in northern Pakistan. The Journal of Asian Studies, 67(01), 213–247.
Marzal, A. and AFP. (2014, December). Inside the Pakistan school: Harrowing images reveal full terror of Taliban attack. The Telegraph. Retrieved from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/pakistan/11298802/Inside-the-Pakistan-school-harrowing-images-reveal-full-terror-of-Taliban-attack.html.
Memon, M. U. (1983). Pakistani Urdu creative writing on national disintegration: The Case of Bangladesh. The Journal of Asian Studies, 43(01), 105–127.
Miller, T. (2009). Mapping the global Muslim population: A report on the size and distribution of the world’s Muslim population. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center.
Mir, A. (2014, December). Capital’s Jamia Hafsa declares support for Islamic State. The News. Retrieved from http://www.thenews.com.pk/Todays-News-2-288900-Capitals-Jamia-Hafsa-declares-support-for-Islamic-State.
Mitchell, J. K. (2003). The fox and the hedgehog: Myopia about homeland security inU S policies on terrorism. In L. Clarke (Ed.), Terrorism and disaster: New threats, new ideas research in social problems and public policy I (Vol. 11), pp. 53–72. Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
Mumtaz, H. (2010, March). Regaining cultural space. Dawn. Retrieved from http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/the-newspaper/local/regaining-cultural-space-130.
Murphy, E. (2012). The making of terrorism in Pakistan: Historical and social roots of extremism. New York: Routledge.
Mustafa, D. (2005). The terrible geographicalness of terrorism: Reflections of a hazards geographer. Antipode, 37(1), 72–92.
Mustafa, D., & Brown, K. E. (2010). The Taliban, public space, and terror in Pakistan. Eurasian Geography and Economics, 51(4), 496–512.
Mustafa, D., & Sawas, A. (2013). Urbanisation and political change in Pakistan: Exploring the known unknowns. Third World Quarterly, 34(7), 1293–1304.
Mustafa, D. (2006). (Anti)social capital in the production of an (un)civil society in Pakistan. Geographical Review, 95(3), 328–347.
Mythen, G., Walklate, S., & Khan, F. (2009). “I’m a Muslim, but I’m not a Terrorist”: Victimization, Risky Identities and the Performance of Safety. British Journal of Criminology, 49(6), 736–754.
Nadiri, K. H. (2014). Old habits, new consequences: Pakistan’s posture toward Afghanistan since 2001. International Security, 39(2), 132–168.
Nasr, V. (2004). Military rule, Islamism and democracy in Pakistan. The Middle East Journal, 58(2), 195–209.
Nauman, Q. (2015, January). Pakistani president approves military courts for terrorism cases: Challenges from legal community considered. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved from http://www.wsj.com/articles/pakistani-president-approves-military-courts-for-terrorism-cases-1420645640.
Naviwala, N. (2015, February). Protesting against terrorism in Pakistan. Foreign Policy. Retrieved from http://foreignpolicy.com/2015/02/18/protesting-against-terrorism-in-pakistan/.
Nawaz, M. (2014, December). Pakistan’s “War on Terror” only encourages Jihadists. Time. Retrieved from http://time.com/3639859/peshawar-attack-pakistan-taliban-revenge-jihadism/.
Nawaz, S. (2008). Crossed swords: Pakistan, its army, and the wars within. Karachi, Pakistan: Oxford University Press.
Negroponte, J.D. (2008). Pakistan’s Fata challenge: Securing one of the world’s most dangerous areas. Washington, DC (Testimony before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee on 20 May, 2008).
Nelson, S. (2014, December). Peshawar attack: Tragic list of children killed in school massacre emerges. The Huffington Post. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2014/12/16/peshawar-attack-tragic-list-children-killed-school-massacre-emerges_n_6333210.html.
NIC. (2000). Global trends 2015: A dialogue about the future with non-governmental experts. National Intelligence Council. Washington, DC, USA. http://www.dni.gov/files/documents/Global%20Trends_2015%20Report.pdf.
NIC. (2012). Global trends 2030: Alternate worlds. National Intelligence Council. Washington, DC, USA. http://www.dni.gov/files/documents/GlobalTrends_2030.pdf.
Paracha, N. F. (2013, December). Alcohol in Pakistan. The prohibition and after. Dawn News. Retrieved from http://www.dawn.com/news/1060507/alcohol-in-pakistan-the-prohibition-and-after.
Qadir, S. (2013, November). Does Pakistan have a drone policy? The Friday Times. Retrieved from http://www.thefridaytimes.com/tft/does-pakistan-have-a-drone-policy/.
Rahman, T. (2008). Language policy and education in Pakistan. In N. Hornberger (Ed.), Encyclopedia of language and education (pp. 383–392). New York: Springer.
Rashid, A. (1999). The Taliban: Exporting extremism. Foreign Affairs, 78(6), 22–35.
Rashid, A. (2012). Descent into chaos: How the war against Islamic extremism is being lost in Pakistan, Afghanistan and Central Asia. New York, NY: Allen Lane.
Rhode, D., Gall, C., Schmitt, E., & Sanger, D. E. (2007, December). US officials see waste in billions sent to Pakistan. New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/24/world/asia/24military.html.
Rodriguez, A. (2010, August). Pakistan flood disaster gives opening to militants. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved from http://articles.latimes.com/2010/aug/10/world/la-fg-pakistan-militants-aid-20100810.
Rodriguez, A. (2011, September). In Pakistan, suicide bombings are part of rhythm of life. The Los Angeles Times. Retrieved from http://articles.latimes.com/2011/sep/05/world/la-fg-pakistan-911-20110906.
Saigol, R. (2009). Decades of disaster: Islamization and the women of Pakistan. The Middle East InstituteViewpoints: The Islamization of Pakistan, 1979–2009. Retrieved from http://www.mei.edu/Portals/0/Publications/Rubina_decades_of_disaster.pdf.
Santana, R., & Shahzad, A. (2014, June). Pakistan launches offensive against militants near Afghan border. The World Post. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/06/15/pakistan-army-says-launch_n_5496487.html.
Sarwar, B. (2014, December). Pakistan must discard its “good Taliban, bad Taliban” narrative. The World Post. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/beena-sarwar/pakistan-taliban-narrative_b_6337604.html.
Sattar, A. (2013, February). Pakistan market bombing: Dozen dead in Quetta blast. The Huffington Post. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/02/16/pakistan-market-bombingquetta_n_2701733.html.
Scott, J. (1998). Seeing like a state: How certain schemes to improve the human condition have failed. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Shahid, J. (2015a, April). Deadline for SIM verification ends today. Retrieved from http://www.dawn.com/news/1175413.
Shahid, J. (2015b, January). 17,00 CCTV cameras to be installed in capital. Dawn News. Retrieved from http://www.dawn.com/news/1160566.
Shaik, F. (2009). Making sense of Pakistan. New Delhi: Foundation Books.
Sharma, A., & Gupta, A. (Eds.). (2006). The anthropology of the state: A reader. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
Shaw, G. R., & Akhther, M. (2012). The unbearable humanness of drone warfare in FATA, Pakistan. Antipode, 44(4), 1490–1509.
Siddiqa, A. (2007). Military inc.: Inside Pakistan’s military economy. London: Pluto press.
Siddiqa, A. (2011). Pakistan’s counterterrorism strategy: Separating friends from enemies. The Washington Quarterly, 34(1), 149–162.
Siddiqa, A. (2014, December). Pakistan’s 9/11? New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/20/opinion/pakistans-9-11.html?_r=0.
Siddique, A. (2014). The Pashtun question: The unresolved key to the future of Pakistan and Afghanistan. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Siddiqui, A. (2008). Partition and the making of the Mohajir mindset. Karachi: Oxford University Press.
Singh, J. (2009). Jinnah: India, partition, Independence. Kolkata, India: Rupa & Co.
South Asia Terrorism Portal. (2015). Fatalities in terrorist violence in Pakistan 2003–2015. Retrieved from http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/pakistan/database/casualties.htm.
Tajik, S. H. (2014). Counterterrorism efforts of law enforcement agencies in Pakistan. In M. Yusaf (Ed.) Pakistan’s counterterrorism challenge (pp. 103–125). Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.
Tanveer, A., & Shahzad, A. (2015, December). California shooter attended religious school founded by Canadian resident: Official. Global News. Retrieved from:http://globalnews.ca/news/2384206/california-shooter-attended-religious-school-while-living-pakistan-official/.
Tariq, S. (2015). Pakistan school attack sparks new form of public action. United States Institute for Peace (USIP). Retrieved from http://www.usip.org/olivebranch/pakistan-school-attack-sparks-new-form-of-public-action.
Tellis, A. J. (2008). Pakistan’s record on terrorism: Conflicted goals, compromised performance. Washington Quarterly, 31(2), 7–32.
Thompson, J. (2014, December). A small measure of progress. Foreign Policy. Retrieved from http://foreignpolicy.com/2014/12/22/a-small-measure-of-progress/.
Times of India, (2005, February). Pak will be failed state by 2015: CIA. Times of India. Retrieved from http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/us/Pak-will-be-failed-state-by-2015-CIA/articleshow/1019516.cms.
Titus, P., & Swidler, N. (2000). Knights, not pawns: Ethno-nationalism and regional dynamics in post-colonial Balochistan. International Journal Middle East Studies, 32(01), 47–69.
Upadhyay, B. (May, 2008). US aid “failing to reach target.” BBC News. Retrieved from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7405434.stm.
Wash, D. (2008, February). Up to 70% of US aid to Pakistan “misspent.” The Guardian. Retrieved from.
Wash, D. (2009, August). The ISI, Pakistan’s notorious and feared spy agency, comes in from the cold. The Guardian. Retrieved from http://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/aug/05/inter-services-intelligence-directorate-pakistan.
Weinbaum, M. G., & Harder, J. B. (2008). Pakistan’s Afghan policies and their consequences. Contemporary South Asia, 16(1), 25–38.
Wise, M. (2012, February). The Ritz-Carlton of failed states. Foreign Policy. Retrieved from http://foreignpolicy.com/2012/02/27/the-ritz-carlton-of-failed-states.
Wisner, B. (2002, March). Is there a geographical theory of terror? Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association of American Geographers, Los Angeles, CA, 19–23. http://online.northumbria.ac.uk/geography_research/radix/wtc7.html.
Wright, L. (2011, May). The double game. The unintended consequence of American funding in Pakistan. Annals of Diplomacy, New Yorker. Retrieved from http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2011/05/16/the-double-game.
Yasmeen, S. (2003). Pakistan’s Kashmir policy: voices of moderation? Contemporary South Asia, 12(2), 187–202.
Yusuf, M. (2014). Pakistan’s militancy challenge. In M. Yusuf (Ed.), Pakistan’s counterterrorism challenge (pp. 15–45). Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.
Zakaria, R. (2012). Sharia, justice, and the politics of intimacy. ASIANetwork Exchange: A Journal for Asian Studies in the Liberal Arts, 19(1), 7–16.
Zaman, Q. (2015, April). Religious leaders evolve consensus on uniform prayer timings in Islamabad. The Express Tribune. Retrieved from http://tribune.com.pk/story/870846/in-islamabad-uniform-prayer-timings-for-all-sects/.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Copyright information
© 2017 The Author(s)
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Aijazi, O. (2017). Security Governance in the Post-Colony: The Political and Social Consequences of Pakistan’s Counterterrorism Strategy. In: Romaniuk, S., Grice, F., Irrera, D., Webb, S. (eds) The Palgrave Handbook of Global Counterterrorism Policy. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-55769-8_27
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-55769-8_27
Published:
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, London
Print ISBN: 978-1-137-55768-1
Online ISBN: 978-1-137-55769-8
eBook Packages: Political Science and International StudiesPolitical Science and International Studies (R0)