Abstract
This chapter begins with a historical account of the emergence of digital technologies in Southeast Asia (Singapore, Malaysia, the Philippines, Indonesia, and Thailand), and the critical role they are playing for sexuality and gender diverse young people. As transnational digital technologies are employed by health services and used by young people to make sense of their experiences and ongoing stigma and discrimination, this book interrogates the design of these digital wellbeing technologies. The chapter surveys the existing literature, examining how emerging technologies are used by sexuality and gender diverse young people, and their experiences with them. The chapter outlines the focus of the book, which aims to extend literature on transnational digital practices, and better understand the development, design and construction of ‘transnational digital wellbeing initiatives’ in LGBT+ lives. The chapter also introduces the framework underpinning this study—the capability approach, and how it provides a tool to make sense of wellbeing and, when used in conversation with social theories, provides a critical framework for making sense of the (im)possibilities of technological design.
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Notes
- 1.
Due, in part, to the decreasing costs of internet plans, and that the internet can now be accessed through smartphone technology (Doshi and Narwold 2014).
- 2.
Data from the ASEAN Statistical Yearbook (2021a).
- 3.
Stigma refers to the process of labelling, othering and discriminating against others based on certain characteristics being considered inferior. Stigma is the result of broader power and structural inequalities. It can be enacted whereby it is experienced by an individual and/or stigma can be felt whereby an individual has an internalised sense of shame and fear of being discriminated against because of a certain characteristic or attribute (i.e. same-sex attraction and/or gender diverse identity). For more on stigma see the work of Goffman (1963), Link and Phelan (2014), as well as Tyler’s (2020) work.
- 4.
I use LGBTQIA+ as a recognisable acronym to refer to trans, gender diverse, intersex, queer, gay, lesbian, bisexual, pansexual, asexual and other sexuality and gender diverse people, and represents the people who participated in this study.
- 5.
This includes the Province of Aceh, South Sumatra, Padang Panjang, City of Pariaman, City of Tasikmalava, and the District of Banjar (Mendoz et al., 2020, p. 132).
- 6.
In August 2022 the Prime Minister indicated the current law criminalising sex between men would be repealed, even though in the same speech the Prime Minister said that he would “ensure better legal protection for the definition of marriage as one between a man and a woman” (Wong, 2022). In December 2022 this law was repealed as planned, however at the same time the constitution was amended to give parliament powers to define marriage (and not the courts), which is defined as between a man and a woman (Heijmans, 2022).
- 7.
To provide some brief definitions: cisgender refers to someone who identifies with their assigned gender at birth. Cisnormativity refers to a social system that claims being cisgender is the default and only natural and/or acceptable form of gender identity. Cisgenderism, is used in a similar way, but emphasises how oppression is rooted in a cultural and ideological system, which “denies, denigrates, or pathologizes self-identified gender identities that do not align with assigned gender at birth as well as resulting behavior, expression, and community.” (Lennon and Mistler 2014, p. 63).
- 8.
I discuss affordances in more detail later, but in short affordances refer to those aspects of technology that enable and constrain use. The concept of affordances recognises the ways that technologies push us in certain directions and constrain and enable certain uses of technologies, whether intended or not (see Davis and Chouinard 2017). Being visible on platforms and being able to engage in degrees of anonymity, for instance, afford different outcomes for people using digital platforms. Affordances are important for what they make (im)possible for LGBT+ young people.
- 9.
Heteronormative contexts, also referred to as heteronormativity, is a presumption that heterosexuality is normative (and normal) and that other sexual feelings and practices are socially deviant (See Warner 1991).
- 10.
Compulsory Heterosexuality is the assumption that women and men are innately attracted to each other emotionally and sexually and that heterosexuality is normal and universal (See Rich 1980).
- 11.
Jurgenson (2011) argues for avoiding what he calls ‘digital dualism’, the tendency to separate the online and offline. Rather than engage in this digital dualism, Jurgenson (2011), as well as other scholars (Marletta 2009; Wellman 2004), including Hine (2015), have argued for seeing the online and offline as overlapping and integrated within individuals’ lives and maintain that researchers should examine the entanglement and symbiosis between the online and offline as individuals pursue their life projects. In part, for this reason, many scholars have turned away from discussing the ‘virtual’ as something that happens ‘out there’, as if the geographic places in which individuals live (and their bodies!) are separate from their participation with technologies.
- 12.
I discuss capabilities, and more specifically the Capability Approach developed by Amartya Sen (1999) in further detail shortly, and in more detail throughout each chapter of the book.
- 13.
I note here Anderson’s (1991) work on imagined communities, which I continue to find useful as a conceptual tool to think about imagined national borders, and how they (de)materialise (in certain ways) across online spaces, which I discuss in more detail throughout the book in relation to digital wellbeing initiatives and interventions.
- 14.
- 15.
- 16.
At least to the extent that individuals in each context have access to the relevant technologies, privacy to use them and literacy to access and utilise their features and functionality. I discuss this in more detail in Chapter Two.
- 17.
PrEP stands for pre-exposure prophylaxis and is a biomedical intervention, which involves use by HIV-negative persons to prevent HIV infection, and is advocated as often one risk mitigation strategy in sexual health decision making.
- 18.
- 19.
When talking about capabilities it is important to note that Sen (2009) has resisted the call for developing a prescribed list of weighted capabilities. While others (Nussbaum 2000, 2003, 2011) have suggested, and argued for, a prescribed list of weighted capabilities, Sen has argued, as Zheng and Stahl (2012, pp. 71–72) point out, that “the list and weighting of valued capabilities should be defined by individuals themselves”. For Sen (1999, p. 288) his position is that individuals should not be seen as “patients to whom benefits will be dispensed by the process of development” (288) but rather they should be seen as active producers of outcomes.
- 20.
This figure has been replicated from Robeyns (2005).
- 21.
For more regarding the Pisonet see Soriano’s (2019) work.
- 22.
Affect here is defined as the outcome of the encounter between entities (human and non-human) and how these entities become affected by these encounters (Deleuze, 1988). Discussions of affect, as Paasonen et al., (2015, p. 19) point out, are centered around “how bodies or objects may produce or experience intensity as they pass from one state to another.” I am interested in how affect gets incorporated into design and how affect travels in technologies designed for wellbeing. I discuss this in further detail in Chaps. 3 and 4.
- 23.
Design here is used broadly. I use it in a similar way to Nichols and Dong (2012), who use “the word design in the sense of a projection of possibilities, of the creation of a world that does not yet exist, rather than the popular definition of design as about giving form and style” (191). While form and style are interwoven within the discussions of the development of the digital wellbeing projects under examination in this study the focus here is on the ‘possibilities’ that might come from these projects that are built into the making and constructing of the technological development projects in question.
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Hanckel, B. (2023). Queer Youth and Digital Technologies in Southeast Asia. In: LGBT+ Youth and Emerging Technologies in Southeast Asia. Perspectives on Children and Young People, vol 14. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-4394-4_1
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