Keywords

6.1 Introduction

According to a Chinese proverb, “Every plant is a medicinal herb.” So, the company of nature in itself is a big healer and has remained an integral part of the medicinal systems since prehistoric times (Assefa et al. 2010). Recent estimates propose that more than 9000 types of plant species have known therapeutic properties, and this is without thorough scientific study among various indigenous communities (Farnsworth and Soejarto 1991). According to the World Health Organization (WHO), about 80% of the world population living in developing countries rely on the traditional plant-based system of medicines to fulfill their primary healthcare needs (WHO 2002).

During the last quarter-century, there has been a renewal of interest in herbal drug therapies as these are comparatively less toxic and more cost-effective than synthetic medicine (Chakraborty 2018). Given the high cost associated with synthetic drugs, herbal medicines have become an important trade and commercial sectors and are contributing greatly towards the socio-economic developments of various countries across the globe. The traditional system of medicine could not be the complete solution for human disease conditions; however, the ethnobotanical study remains one of the most potential approaches in drug discovery; approximately 25% of the drugs prescribed globally come from plant sources (Jabbar et al. 2007; Rates 2001).

The Indian subcontinent is a vast repository of medicinal plants and covers nearly 27% of the world’s total known medicinal plant species (Krishna Kumar and Katakam 2002). In India, 90% of medicinal plants diversity is spread across broad range of forests, and only about 10% is confined to non-forest ecosystems. The Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) shares a significant part of this diversity, as can be seen in the literature reporting around 1748 species in this region (Joshi et al. 2016). There is a very high awareness of herbal drugs in ethnic communities from Trans-Himalayas to southern and western tips to four north-eastern corners. Kashmir Himalayas, one of the most spectacular regions of the IHR is located at the Northwestern tip of the Himalayan region and harbors rich biodiversity of medicinal plants (Fig. 6.1) (Jeelani et al. 2018). These plants form an important part of folk medicine and have been used since ages as home remedies for treating various ailments. However, this traditional knowledge of healthcare is eroding due to rapid socio-cultural changes. Until now, a limited number of studies have been carried out to comprehensively document the scientific information on the medicinal plant species of the Kashmir valley (Khan et al. 2004; Malik et al. 2011), which necessitates a need of comprehensive scientific documentation of these plants species. This chapter, therefore, documents some of the important medicinal plants of Kashmir valley concerning their accurate scientific information on morphology, common and local names for easy collection, distribution, and traditional uses across different indigenous communities. Additionally, the biological activities of these medicinal plants have been summarized using findings from published pharmacological and phytochemical studies. The findings of this work may not only help to boost the local economy of this region but also help to promote a base for future drug research and the utilization and protection of indigenous medicinal plants.

Fig. 6.1
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Geographical hotspots of selected medicinal plants, image source, (ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology 2020)

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The appropriate literature was searched for relevant information through different electronic databases (PubMed, NISCAIR, Embase, Medline, and Google Scholar) using various keywords such as “medicinal plants,” “Kashmir Himalaya,”, “Kashmir valley,” “ethnobotany,” “ethnomedicinal uses,” “ethnopharmacological properties,” “medicinal uses,” “pharmacological properties,” and “biological properties.” Studies selected for this chapter included medicinal plants that were: traditionally used across different indigenous communities of Kashmir valley; having ethnopharmacological evidence to support for local use; and having demonstrated in vitro or in vivo pharmacological activities. All the scientific names were validated using the plant name index databases, such as Envis Centre on Medicinal Plants, National Gardening Association, and Medicinal Plants in India.

6.2 Distribution at Different Altitudes

The present study investigated a total of 30 species (Fig. 6.2) of indigenous edible medicinal plants grown at different altitudes in the Kashmir valley (Fig. 6.3a). Twelve species were found at altitudes of 1600-2800 m, 3 species at altitudes of 1700-3500 m, 3 species at altitudes of 2000-4500 m, 2 species at altitudes of 2100–3900, 2 species at altitudes of 2300-3800 m, 2 species at altitudes of 2400-4800 m, 2 species at altitudes of 2500-3500 m. The remaining 4 species were located at altitude ranges of 1500-3000 m, 1800-2600 m, 1900-3000 m, 3200-3900 m, respectively. Therefore, it can be concluded that the altitude range of 1600-2800 m represents the best sampling spot.

Fig. 6.2
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Images of selected medicinal plants, image source, (Envis Centre on Medicinal Plants 2020; National Gardening Association 2020; Medicinal Plants in India 2020; Plants For A Future 2020)

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Fig. 6.3
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(a) Altitude range frequencies (number of species); (b) Family distribution of selected medicinal plants

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6.3 Taxonomic and Morphological Description

All of the plant species reviewed were angiosperms belonging to 18 families (Fig. 6.3b). Asteraceae was the most dominant family representing 7 (23.3%) plant species. Based on morphology (Table 6.1), it was found that 27 (90%) plant species were herbs, while 3 (10%) were shrubs.

Table 6.1 List of selected medicinal plants from Kashmir valley with their botanical names, local names, family, altitude distribution, and habitat
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6.4 Plant Part Used for Traditional Use

Herbal remedies for traditional use were found to be prepared from almost all plant parts including leaves, roots, seeds, flowers, fruits, rhizomes, stem, or the whole plant (Fig. 6.4). The most commonly used part was the leaf (26%), followed by roots (22%), seeds (15%), whole plant (14%) rhizome (9%), and flowers (8%). Medicinal formulations are usually made after shade drying these parts rather than using their fresh forms. Oral administration of these herbal formulations was the commonest.

Fig. 6.4
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Percentage distribution of plant parts used

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6.5 Ailments Treated

Considering the ailments treated by these medicinal plants, the common ones included gastrointestinal problems, respiratory problems, infections, musculoskeletal problems, dermatological problems, CNS problems, wounds, cough/cold, dental, fever, and headache (Fig. 6.5a). The vast majority of plant species were used for treating gastrointestinal and respiratory problems (16 species each), followed by infections (13 species) and cough/cold (10 species). The least treated ailments were alopecia, menstrual irregularities, cardiac, circulatory, and liver problems (3, 3, 2, 2, 2 species, respectively). Herbal remedies were generally prepared by using techniques such as boiling, paste making, squeezing, decoctions, infusions, and grinding to powder (Table 6.2).

Fig. 6.5
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(a) Frequency use of plant species based on different ailments; (b) Frequency distribution of plant species based on reported pharmacological activity

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Table 6.2 List of selected medicinal plants from Kashmir valley with their ethnomedicinal uses and reported pharmacological activities
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6.6 Reported Pharmacological Activities

By reviewing the pharmacological and phytochemical literature on the selected medicinal plants, it was revealed that these plant species possess a diverse range of pharmacological properties as listed in Table 6.2.Major pharmacological actions reported were antimicrobial and antioxidant (20 species each), followed by anticancer (16 species), antidiabetic (10 species), analgesic (7 species), and hepatoprotective (9 species) (Fig. 6.5b).

6.7 Economic Importance

Over the last two decades, medicinal plants have gained considerable interest within the pharmaceutical sector as they are deemed safe and cost-effective in contrast to synthetic medicines. According to WHO, the current market for herbal medicine is nearly US$14 billion per year which is expected to rise to US$ 5 trillion by the year 2050 (Sharma 2004). In India, the trade associated with herbal medicine is currently around US $1 billion per year, of which Northern Himalayas contribute a large part with unique flora from the Kashmir Himalayas (Joshi et al. 2004). The herbal medicine sector in India employs around 1.5 million traditional practitioners. Therefore, effective cultivation of medicinal plant species has a great advantage in raising the herbal drug industry (Pandey et al. 2013).

Considering the rich agro-ecological conditions of Kashmir Himalayas, its indigenous medicinal plant species produce high amounts of essential secondary metabolites than those found in other regions of India. Around 171 of 675 Himalayan edible medicinal plants are used by locals for treating several ailments (Samant et al. 2001), and about 81 aromatic medicinal plants are used to obtain essential oils (Kala et al. 2006). Notable among the aromatic species are Lavandula officinalis, Rosa damascena, Dioscorea deltoidea, Podophyllum hexandrum, Mentha arvensis, Rosmarinus officinalis, Artemisia absinthium, and Atropa acuminata. The essential oils derived from these herbal plants are among the world’s top 10 essential oils in aromatherapy (Khan et al. 2016). Considering these high-value medicinal plants, the valley of Kashmir offers a significant potential to establish the essential oil, perfumery, and pharmaceutical sector (Shawl and Kumar 2000). As discussed in the above sections of this chapter, many medicinal plant species are being used by folklore for treating various ailments like gastrointestinal problems, respiratory problems, infections, musculoskeletal problems, dermatological problems, cardiac problems, etc. This traditional knowledge of herbal drugs may generate significant economic benefits by providing a base for future drug research (Pandey et al. 2013).

6.8 Future Perspectives

Kashmir valley harbors a rich diversity of medicinal plants, with Kashmir division accounting for around 3000 such species (Dar et al. 2017). This chapter documented 30 medicinal plants from Kashmir valley having been used in the traditional system of medicine. Considering the current pharmacological and phytochemical investigations, it is evident that these herbal species possess a broad range of pharmacological activities that align with the traditional use. Since traditional use and chemical analysis of medicinal plants have generated valuable insights towards the discovery of new therapeutic agents (Cotton and Wilkie 1996), a comprehensive phytochemical and pharmacological research of locally used herbal species is needed which may lead to the development of novel biologically active compounds for the treatment of diseases which currently do not have the suitable cure.

Furthermore, the traditional knowledge of healthcare is eroding due to rapid socio-cultural changes. Moreover, indiscriminate and unscientific harvesting techniques have brought most of these species on the verge of extinction. Therefore, appropriate guidelines and strategies for the conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plants need to be formulated and implemented. Also, strenuous efforts should be made to encourage the mass cultivation of medicinal plants which in turn would ensure the continuous supply of these medicinal plants, both for indigenous and commercial use. Finally, joint efforts between the government and local people and the implementation of education programs aimed at conveying the importance of traditional medicinal plants are of utmost importance in boosting the economic development associated with these medicinal plants.