Abstract
The Tribunal, agreeing with the Philippines, interpreted Article 192 in such a way as to encompass the protection and preservation of endangered species and fragile ecosystems, particularly coral reefs. In examining Philippine Submissions No. 11 and 12(b), the Tribunal drew on other provisions of Part XII, notably Article 194(5), and on the CBD and CITES. It concluded that China had failed to comply with its due diligence obligation to prevent the harvesting of endangered species, but not that China had failed to prevent dynamite and cyanide fishing. The Tribunal, after examining the reports of independent experts, concluded that China’s construction activities in the Spratly Islands caused devastating and irreversible damage to the marine environment and that China had breached Article 192. China had also breached the obligation to cooperate with other States bordering the South China Sea under Articles 197 and 123 by ignoring their protests at China’s construction activities. The Tribunal, unable to ascertain whether China had carried out an EIA, under Article 206, concluded that China had breached Article 205 by failing to communicate the results of any such assessment.
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Notes
- 1.
South China Sea Arbitration, Memorial of the Philippines (30 March 2014), vol. I, 156, para. 6.68 (“MP”), https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/Memorial%20of%20the%20Philippines%20Volume%20I.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019; South China Sea Arbitration, Award on Jurisdiction and Admissibility (29 October 2015), 35, para. 101 (“Award on Jurisdiction”), https://pcacases.com/web/sendAttach/1506, accessed 26 March 2019; Award of 12 July 2016, 41–42, para. 112, https://pcacases.com/web/sendAttach/2086, accessed 26 March 2019. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea , concluded at Montego Bay on 10 December, entered into force on 16 November 1994, http://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/closindx.htm, accessed 21 March 2019.
- 2.
South China Sea Arbitration, Hearing on the Merits and Remaining Issues of Admissibility, Transcript, Day 4 (30 November 2015), 173 (“Hearing on the Merits”), https://pcacases.com/web/sendAttach/1550, accessed 10 April 2019; Myron H. Nordquist et al. (eds.), United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 Commentary, vol. IV, Third Committee: Protection and Preservation of the Marine Environment, Marine Scientific Research, and Development and Transfer of Marine Technology (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1991), 36, 40; Nilufer Oral, “Implementing Part XII of the 1982 UN Law of the Sea Convention and the Role of International Courts,” in Nerina Boschiero et al. (eds.), International Courts and the Development of International Law. Essays in Honour of Tullio Treves (The Hague: T.M.C. Asser Press, 2013), 403, 405. Czybulka is one of the few to doubt that the general obligation is binding even on States that are not Parties to the Convention, on the grounds that the Convention does not make a systematic distinction between “States” and “States Parties.” Detlef Czybulka, “Article 192. General Obligation,” in Alexander Proelss (ed.), The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. A Commentary (München: Verlag C.H. Beck oHG, 2017), 1283.
- 3.
See for the Philippine view, South China Sea Arbitration, Hearing on Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Transcript, Day 2 (8 July 2015), 95 (“Hearing on Jurisdiction”), https://pcacases.com/web/sendAttach/1400, accessed 3 April 2019; Hearing on the Merits, Transcript, Day 3 (26 November 2015), 23, https://pcacases.com/web/sendAttach/1549, accessed 26 March 2019; Award of 12 July 2016, 373, para. 940, https://pcacases.com/web/sendAttach/2086, accessed 26 March 2019.
- 4.
Hearing on the Merits, Transcript, Day 4, 172–73.
- 5.
Ibid., Transcript, Day 3, 13; Award on Jurisdiction, 145, para. 408; Award of 12 July 2016, 373, para. 940.
- 6.
MP, vol. I, 156, para. 6.68; Award of 12 July 2016, 373, para. 941. For scholarly commentators, “protection” entails measures relating to imminent or existing danger or injury: “preservation” involves “conserving natural resources and retaining the quality of the marine environment.” Nordquist et al., vol. IV, 11–12, 40.
- 7.
Award of 12 July 2016, 373–74, para. 941.
- 8.
Hearing on Jurisdiction, Transcript, Day 2, 95.
- 9.
Hearing on the Merits, Transcript, Day 4, 174–75.
- 10.
Hearing on Jurisdiction, Transcript, Day 2, 96.
- 11.
Chagos Marine Protected Area Arbitration (Mauritius v. UK), Award of 18 March 2015, 129, para. 320; 211, para. 538, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/MU-UK%2020150318%20Award.pdf, accessed 5 April 2019.
- 12.
Award of 12 July 2016, 376, para. 945 For the Philippine argument, see Hearing on Jurisdiction, Transcript, Day 2, 96; Hearing on the Merits, Transcript, Day 3, 24.
- 13.
Hearing on the Merits, Transcript, Day 3, 27, 29. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, signed at Washington, DC, on 3 March 1973, amended at Bonn, on 22 June 1979, amended at Gaborone, on 30 April 1983, https://www.cites.org/eng/disc/text.php, accessed 26 March 2019. Convention on Biological Diversity, signed at Rio de Janeiro on 5 June 1992, entered into force on 29 December 1993, https://www.cbd.int/doc/legal/cbd-en.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
- 14.
Supplemental Written Submission of the Philippines (16 March 2015), vol. I, 56, paras. 11.6, 11.8 (“SWSP”), http://www.pcacases.com/pcadocs/Supplemental%20Written%20Submission%20Volume%20I.pdf, accessed 5 April 2019.
- 15.
MP, vol. I, 190, para. 6.82; SWSP, vol. I, 56, para. 11.4. Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, done at Vienna on 23 May 1969, entered into force on 27 January 1980, http://legal.un.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/conventions/1_1_1969.pdf, accessed 9 April 2019.
- 16.
Award of 12 July 2016, 373, para. 941. See also Award on Jurisdiction, 69, para. 176.
- 17.
Nordquist et al., vol. IV, 425. The text of Article 237. Obligations under other Conventions on the Protection and Preservation of the Marine Environment are as follows:
1. The provisions of this Part are without prejudice to the specific obligations assumed by States under special conventions and agreements concluded previously which relate to the protection and preservation of the marine environment and to agreements which may be concluded in furtherance of the general principles set forth in this Convention.
2. Specific obligations assumed by States under special conventions, with respect to the protection and preservation of the marine environment, should be carried out in a manner consistent with the general principles and objectives of this Convention.
- 18.
Pierre-Marie Dupuy and Martine Rémond-Guilloud, “La préservation du milieu marin [The Preservation of the Marine Environment],” in René-Jean Dupuy and Daniel Vignes (eds.), Traité du Nouveau Droit de la mer [Treatise on the New Law of the Sea] (Paris: Éditions Economica, 1985), 1005.
- 19.
Award of 12 July 2016, 375, para. 944.
- 20.
Hearing on the Merits, Transcript, Day 3, 32–33; Award of 12 July 2016, 375–76, para. 944.
- 21.
Hearing on the Merits, Transcript, Day 2, 30.
- 22.
Malgosia A. Fitzmaurice, “International Protection of the Environment,” Recueil des Cours de l’Académie de Droit International de La Haye [Collected Courses of the Hague Academy of International Law], vol. 293 (2001-VI), 288. On the origins of due diligence, see Awalou Ouedraogo, “La due diligence en droit international: de la règle de la neutralité au principe général [Due Diligence in International Law: From the Rule of Neutrality to the General Principle],” Revue générale de droit [General Journal of Law] 42 (2012): 642–83, https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/rgd/2012-v42-n2-rgd01542/1026909ar.pdf, accessed 11 April 2019. For recent surveys, see Thiago Braz Jardim Oliveira, “La diligence due dans la prévention des dommages à l’environnement [Due Diligence in the Prevention of Damage to the Environment],” Anuário Brasileiro de Direito Internacional Annuaire Brésilien de Droit International [Brazilian Yearbook of International Law] 7 (2012): 205–42, https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2253408, accessed 11 April 2019; Duncan French and Tim Stephens, ILA Study Group on Due Diligence in International Law. First Report (7 March 2014), https://olympereseauinternational.files.wordpress.com/2015/07/due_diligence_-_first_report_2014.pdf, accessed 11 April 2019; Doris König, “The Elaboration of Due Diligence Obligations as a Mechanism to Ensure Compliance with International Legal Obligations by Private Actors,” in La contribution du Tribunal international du droit de la mer à l’état de droit: 1996–2016 [The Contribution of the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea to the Rule of Law: 1996–2016] (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2017), 83–95; and Tim Stephens and Duncan French, ILA Study Group on Due Diligence in International Law. Second Report (July 2016), https://ila.vettoreweb.com/Storage/Download.aspx?DbStorageId=1427…4796, accessed 11 April 2019.
- 23.
Stephens and French, 8.
- 24.
Ibid., 2, 7.
- 25.
French and Stephens, 25–26.
- 26.
Patricia Birnie, Alan Boyle and Catherine Redgewell, International Law and the Environment (3rd ed.; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 147–48. Boyle was one of the counsels of the Philippines in the South China Sea Arbitration.
- 27.
Hearing on the Merits, Transcript, Day 3, 30.
- 28.
Award of 12 July 2016, 376, para. 944.
- 29.
Hearing on the Merits, Transcript, Day 4, 138–62, 166–87.
- 30.
Ibid., 181–82.
- 31.
The Philippines’ Written Responses to the Tribunal’s November 2015 Question (18 December 2015), https://pcacases.com/web/sendAttach/1848, accessed 11 April 2019.
- 32.
The list of documents may be found in South China Sea Arbitration, The Philippines’ Written Responses to the Tribunal’s 5 February 2016 Request for Comments (11 March 2016) (Annexes 864–892), https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Written%20Responses%20%2811%20March%202016%29%20%28Annexes%20864-892%29.pdf, accessed 7 April 2016.
- 33.
Award of 12 July 2016, 29, para. 84; 30, para. 85; 31, para. 89.
- 34.
Ibid., 364, para. 915; 365, paras. 917–20; 369, para. 924.
- 35.
Jean Combacau, “Obligation de résultat et obligation de comportement: Quelques questions et pas de réponse [Obligation of Result and Obligation of Conduct: Some Questions and No Response],” in Daniel Bardonnet et al. (eds.), Mélanges offerts à Paul Reuter. Le droit international: Unité et diversité [Essays in Honor of Paul Reuter. International Law: Unity and Diversity] (Paris: Editions A. Pedone, 1981), 186.
- 36.
Pierre-Marie Dupuy, “Reviewing the Difficulties of Codification: On Ago’s Classification of Obligations of Means and Obligations of Result in relation to State Responsibility,” European Journal of International Law 10 (1999): 381.
- 37.
MP, vol. I, 179–81, para. 6.55; Award of 12 July 2016, 322–29, paras. 827–51.
- 38.
MP, Annex 29, Memorandum from the Assistant Secretary for Asian and Pacific Affairs, Department of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines, to the Secretary of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines (23 March 1998), vol. III, 277–82, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019; Award of 12 July 2016, 322, para. 827.
- 39.
MP, Annex 29, vol. III, 277–82; Award of 12 July 2016, 322–23, para. 827.
- 40.
MP, Annex 41, Situation Report the Philippine Navy to the Chief of Staff, Armed Forces of the Philippines, No. 004-18074 (18 April 2000), vol. III, 341–44, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019; MP, Annex 42, Letter from Vice Admiral, Armed Forces of the Philippines, to Secretary of National Defense of the Republic of the Philippines (27 May 2000), vol. III, 345–50, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019 (the photographs of sticks of dynamite and corals being transferred to BRP Republika ng Pilipinas Lanao del Norte [LT-504] are at 350); Award of 12 July 2016, 323, para. 828.
- 41.
MP, Annex 44, Memorandum from Acting Secretary of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines to the President of the Republic of the Philippines (5 February 2001), vol. III, 357–62, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019; MP, Annex 46, Office of Asian and Pacific Affairs, Department of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines, Apprehension of Four Chinese Fishing Vessels in the Scarborough Shoal (23 February 2001), vol. III, 369–74, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019; Award of 12 July 2016, 323–24, para. 830.
- 42.
MP, Annex 43, Memorandum from the Embassy of the Republic of the Philippines in Beijing to the Secretary of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines, No. ZPE-06-2001-S (13 February 2001), vol. III, 395–98, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019; Award of 12 July 2016, 324, para. 831.
- 43.
MP, Annex 50, Letter from Vice Admiral, Philippine Navy, to the Assistant Secretary for Asian and Pacific Affairs, Department of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines (26 March 2002), vol. III, 399–404, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019; Award of 12 July 2016, 324, para. 831.
- 44.
MP, Annex 52, Report from CNS to Flag Officer in Command, Philippine Navy, File No. N2D-0802-401 (1 September 2002), vol. III, 411–14, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019; Award of 12 July 2016, 324, para. 831.
- 45.
MP, Annex 55, Report from Lt. Commander, Philippine Navy, to Flag Officer in Command, Philippine Navy, No. N2E-F-1104-012 (18 November 2004), vol. III, 435–54, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019 (a photograph of confiscated giant clams is at 448); Award of 12 July 2016, 324, para, 832.
- 46.
MP, Annex 57, Letter from Rear Admiral, Armed Forces of the Philippines, to the Assistant Secretary for Asian and Pacific Affairs, Department of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines (2006), vol. III, 461–80, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019; Award of 12 July 2016, 324, para. 833.
- 47.
MP, Annex 59, Report from the Commanding Officer, NAVSOU-2, Philippine Navy, to the Acting Commander, Naval Task Force 21, Philippine Navy, No. NTF21-0406-011/NTF21 OPLAN (BANTAY AMIANAN) 01-05 (9 April 2006), vol. III, 485–502, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019; Award of 12 July 2016, 325, para. 834.
- 48.
MP, Annex 77, Memorandum from Colonel, Philippine Navy, to Chief of Staff, Armed Forces of the Philippines, No. N2E-0412-008 (11 April 2012), vol. IV, 131–47, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20IV%20%28Annexes%2061-102%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019; Award of 12 July 2016, 324, para. 835.
- 49.
MP, Annex 77, vol. III, 135; Award of 12 July 2016, 324, para. 836.
- 50.
MP, Annex 78, Report from the Commanding Officer, SARV-003, Philippine Coast Guard, to Commander, Coast Guard District Northwestern Luzon, Philippine Coast Guard (28 April 2012), vol. IV, 147–59, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20IV%20%28Annexes%2061-102%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019; Award of 12 July 2016, 325–26, para. 837.
- 51.
MP, Annex 78, 154.
- 52.
MP, Annex 94, Armed Forces of the Philippines, Near-Occupation of Chinese Vessels of Second Thomas (Ayungin) Shoal in the Early Weeks of May 2012 (May 2013), vol. IV, 337, 339, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20IV%20%28Annexes%2061-102%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019; Award of 12 July 2016, 327, para. 846.
- 53.
Philippines Written Responses to the Tribunal’s November 2015 Questions (Annexes 860–63) (18 December 2015), Annex 862, “Why Are Chinese Fishermen Destroying Coral Reefs in the South China Sea?” by Rupert Wingfield-Hayes, BBC (15 December 2015), 14–24, http://www.pcacases.com/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Written%20Responses%20to%20the%20Tribunal%27s%20November%202015%20Question%20%28Annexes%20860-863%29.pdf, accessed 11 April 2019.
- 54.
MP, vol. I, 178, para. 6.56; 181, para. 6.57.
- 55.
The IUCN is a non-governmental organization founded in 1948 and with headquarters in Gland, Switzerland. Its members are both governments and civil society organizations. It describes itself as “the global authority on the status of the natural world and the measures needed to safeguard it.” International Union for Conservation of Nature, About (Gland: IUCN, 2019), https://www.iucn.org/about, accessed 12 April 2019.
- 56.
Hearing on the Merits, Transcript, Day 4, 145–46.
- 57.
Ibid., 150–51.
- 58.
Ibid., 145.
- 59.
South China Sea Arbitration, Independent Expert Report. Assessment of the Potential Environmental Consequence of Construction Activities on Seven Reefs in the Spratly Islands in the South China Sea, Sebastian C.A. Ferse, Peter Mumby, and Selina Ward, 26 April 2016, 10 (“Ferse Report”), https://pcacases.com/web/sendAttach/1809, accessed 24 March 2019; Award of 12 July 2016, 381, para. 957; Philippines Written Responses to the Tribunal’s November 2015 Questions, Annex 862, 15–24.
- 60.
Award of 12 July 2016, 329, para. 851.
- 61.
Ferse Report, 17–19.
- 62.
Award of 12 July 2016, 328, para. 848.
- 63.
Ibid., 381, para. 958, The Philippines’ Annexes Cited During the Hearing on the Merits, Annex 850, “Offshore Coral Reef Damage, Overfishing and Paths to Peace in the South China Sea”, by John McManus, The South China Sea: An International Law Perspective, Conference Papers (6 March 2015), 578–608, https://pcacases.com/web/view/7, accessed 26 March 2019.
- 64.
Draft (draught) is defined as the depth of water that a ship requires to float freely. Larousse Dictionary of Science and Technology (Edinburgh: Larousse plc, 1995), 332.
- 65.
Award of 12 July 2016, 329, para. 850. See Letter from Professor John W. McManus to the Tribunal, 22 April 2016, https://pcacases.com/web/sendAttach/1917, accessed 17 April 2019.
- 66.
Ferse Report, 10; quoted in the Award of 12 July 2016, 380, para. 955; MP, vol. I, 181–82, para. 6.56; Carpenter, in Hearing on the Merits, Transcript, Day 4, 150.
- 67.
Award of 12 July 2016. 382, para. 960.
- 68.
MP, Annex 21, Memorandum from the Ambassador of the Republic of the Philippines in Beijing to the Undersecretary of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines (10 April 1995), vol. III, 230, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
- 69.
MP, Annex 29, vol. III, 277–82; Award of 12 July 2016, 322–23, para. 827.
- 70.
MP, Annex 41, vol. III, 341–44; Award of 12 July 2016, 323, para. 829.
- 71.
MP, Annex 49, Memorandum from Perfecto C. Pascual, Director, Naval Operation Center, Philippine Navy, to The Flag Officer in Command, Philippine Navy (11 February 2002), vol. III, 395–97, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019; Award of 12 July 2016, 324, para. 831.
- 72.
MP, Annex 50, vol. III, 388–404 (see a photograph of cyanide tube pumps at 403).
- 73.
MP, Annex 52,vol. III, 411–14.
- 74.
MP, Annex 57, Letter from Rear Admiral, Armed Forces of the Philippines, to the Assistant Secretary for Asian and Pacific Affairs, Department of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines (2006), vol. III, 466, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
- 75.
MP, Annex 59, vol. III, 485–502; MP, vol. I, 181–84, paras. 6.58–6.61; Award of 12 July 2016, 385–86, paras. 9.68–9.69.
- 76.
Award of 12 July 2016, 386, para. 969.
- 77.
Hearing on the Merits, Transcript, Day 3, 20–21.
- 78.
MP, vol. I, 182, para. 6.59.
- 79.
Ibid., 183–84, para 6.61.
- 80.
Hearing on the Merits, Transcript, Day 4, 158–59.
- 81.
MP, Annex 240, “Eastern South China Sea Environmental Disturbances and Irresponsible Fishing Practices and their Effects on Coral Reefs and Fisheries.” by Kent E. Carpenter, Ph.D., vol. VII, 407 (“First Carpenter Report”), https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20VII%20%28Annexes%20222-255%29.pdf, accessed 7 April 2019.
- 82.
Hearing on the Merits, Transcript, Day 4, 159; First Carpenter Report, 407; MP, vol. I, 182, para. 6.60–6.61; Award of 12 July 2016, 357, para. 898.
- 83.
Award of 12 July 2016, 386, para. 970; Ferse Report, 10. According to another scholar, in fishing for purposes of the restaurant and aquarium trade, cyanide is almost exclusively used, as it is deemed as the most “cost-effective” way of fishing. Herman S.J. Cesar, “Coral Reefs: Their Threats, Functions and Economic Value,” in Herman S.J. Cesar (ed.), Collected Essays on the Economics of Coral Reefs (Kalmar: Linnaeus University, 2002), 17, http://www.reefbase.org/resource_center/publication/pub_12370.aspx, accessed 31 March 2019.
- 84.
MP, Annex 16, Memorandum to the Assistant Secretary, Office of Asian and Pacific Affairs, Department of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines (23 March 1992), vol. III, 201–4, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
- 85.
MP, Annex 19, Memorandum from Erlinda F. Basilio, Acting Assistant Secretary, Office of Asian and Pacific Affairs, Department of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines, to the Secretary of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines (29 March 1995), vol. III, 217, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
- 86.
MP, Annex 20, Memorandum from Lauro L. Baja, Jr., Assistant Secretary, Office of Asian and Pacific Affairs, Department of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines, to the Secretary of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines (7 April 1995), vol. III, 219–24, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
- 87.
MP, Annex 21, vol. III, 228.
- 88.
MP, Annex 43, vol. III, 353.
- 89.
MP, Annex 51, Memorandum from Josue L. Villa, Embassy of the Republic of the Philippines in Beijing, to the Secretary of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines (19 August 2002), vol. III, 405–409, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
- 90.
MP, Annex 75, Memorandum from the Embassy of the Republic of the Philippines in Beijing to the Secretary of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines, No. ZPE-121-2011-S (2 December 2011), vol. IV, 123, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20IV%20%28Annexes%2061-102%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
- 91.
Chinese Society of International Law (“CSIL”), “The South China Sea Arbitration Awards: A Critical Study,” Chinese Journal of International Law 17 (2018): 580–82, paras. 791–95.
- 92.
MP, Annex 117, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Liu Weimin’s Regular Press Conference on April 12, 2012 (12 April 2012), vol. V, 111, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20V%20%28Annexes%20103-157%29.pdf, accessed 16 April 2019.
- 93.
MP, Annex 211, Note Verbale from the Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in Manila to the Department of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines, No. (12) PG-239 (25 May 2012), vol. VI, 401–4, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20VI%20%28Annexes%20158-221%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
- 94.
MP, Annex 45, Memorandum from the Assistant Secretary for Asian and Pacific Affairs, Department of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines, to the Secretary of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines (14 February 2001), vol. III, 363–68, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
- 95.
MP, Annex 47, Memorandum from the Embassy of the Republic of the Philippines in Beijing to the Secretary of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines, No. ZPE-09-2001-S (17 March 2001). Vol. III, 375–78, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
- 96.
MP, vol. I, 187, paras. 6.71–6.72; 190–93, paras. 6.82–6.89; Award of 12 July 2016, 361, para. 907.
- 97.
MP, vol. I, 187, paras. 6.71–6.72; Hearing on the Merits, Transcript, Day 4, 171–72.
- 98.
Stockholm Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, 16 June 1972, https://www.jus.uio.no/english/services/library/treaties/06/6-01/stockholm_decl.xml, accessed 22 April 2019.
- 99.
MP, vol. I, 187, para. 6.71.
- 100.
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (“UNCED”), Agenda 21, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 3–14 June 1992, 183, paras. 17.74(d), (e), and (f), https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/Agenda21.pdf, accessed 11 April 2019.
- 101.
Hearing on the Merits, Transcript, Day 3, 29.
- 102.
Ibid., 28.
- 103.
Ibid., Transcript, Day 4, 178.
- 104.
MP, I, 191–92, paras. 6.84–6.85.
- 105.
CBD, Article 8(c) and (d).
- 106.
MP, vol. I, 192–93, paras. 6.85–6.89.
- 107.
SWSP, 56, para. 11.3; MP, vol. I, 191–92, paras. 6.82–6.85; Hearing on Jurisdiction, Transcript, Day 2, 107; Hearing on the Merits, Transcript, Day 4, 177–78.
- 108.
Hearing on the Merits, Transcript, Day 4, 178.
- 109.
Ibid., Day 3, 28; Award of 12 July 2016, 361, para. 910.
- 110.
MP, vol. I, 188–90, paras. 6.75–6.81.
- 111.
Convention, Article 1(4).
- 112.
Article 194(1) provides that
States shall take, individually or jointly as appropriate, all measures consistent with this Convention that are necessary to prevent, reduce and control pollution of the marine environment from any source, using for this purpose the best practicable means at their disposal and in accordance with their capabilities, and they shall endeavour to harmonize their policies in this connection.
- 113.
MP, vol. I, 189, para. 6.79.
- 114.
Convention, Article 194(3)(a).
- 115.
Ibid., Article 1(5)(a)(i).
- 116.
Article 194(5) stipulates that “[t]he measures taken in accordance with this Part shall include those necessary to protect and preserve rare or fragile ecosystems as well as the habitat of depleted, threatened or endangered species and other forms of marine life.”
- 117.
MP, vol. I, 189–90, para. 6.79. Protocol to the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, 1972, done at London, 2 November 1996 (as amended in 2006), http://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Environment/LCLP/Documents/PROTOCOLAmended2006.pdf, accessed 11 April 2019.
- 118.
MP, vol. I, 190, paras. 6.80–6.81.
- 119.
Award of 12 July 2016, 381, para. 959.
- 120.
Ibid., 383, para. 956.
- 121.
Ibid.
- 122.
Ibid.
- 123.
Ibid., 382, para. 960.
- 124.
Ibid., 383, para. 956; 384, para. 957.
- 125.
Ibid., 381, para. 957.
- 126.
Ibid., 376, para. 945.
- 127.
Nordquist et al., vol. IV, 63–64.
- 128.
Ibid., 53. United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2749 (XXV), Declaration of Principles Governing the Sea-Bed and the Ocean Floor, and the Subsoil Thereof, beyond the Limits of National Jurisdiction, para. 11(a) adopted on 17 December 1970, https://www.unescwa.org/declaration-principles-governing-seabed-and-ocean-floor-and-subsoil-thereof-beyond-limits-national, accessed 12 April 2019.
- 129.
Award of 12 July 2016, 376, para. 945.
- 130.
Ibid. In the definition formulated by the Conference of the Parties (COP) of the CBD, the scientific criterion of “rarity” for “ecologically or biologically significant marine areas in need of protection in open-ocean waters and deep sea-habitats” means that that the “Area contains either (i) unique (‘the only one of its kind’), rare (occurs only in few locations) or endemic species, populations or communities, and/or (ii) unique, rare or distinct, habitats or ecosystems; and/or (iii) unique or unusual geomorphological or oceanographic features.” The scientific criterion of “vulnerability, fragility, sensitivity, or slow recovery” means that the area contains “a relatively high proportion of sensitive habitats, biotopes or species that are functionally fragile (highly susceptible to degradation or depletion by human activity or by natural events) or with slow recovery.” The scientific criterion of “Importance for threatened, endangered or declining species and/or habitats” means that the area contains “habitat for the survival and recovery of endangered, threatened, declining species or area with significant assemblages of such species.” Conference of the Parties to the CBDCOP 9, Decision IX/20, Marine and Coastal Biodiversity, Annex 1, Scientific Criteria for Identifying Ecologically or Biologically Significant Marine Areas in Need of Protection in Open-ocean Waters and Deep Sea-habitats 7–8, Doc. UNEP/CBD/COP/DEC/IX/20 (9 October 2008), https://www.cbd.int/doc/decisions/cop-09/cop-09-dec-20-en.pdf, accessed 6 May 2019. Aichi Biodiversity Target 10 identifies coral reefs as “vulnerable ecosystems.” The goal is to reduce by 2020 “multiple anthropogenic pressures on coral reefs, and other vulnerable ecosystems impacted by climate change or ocean acidification are minimized, so as to maintain their integrity and functioning.” CBD COP 10, Decision X/2, X/2. Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020 and the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, 9, Doc. UNEP/CBD/COP/DEC/X/2 (29 October 2010), https://www.cbd.int/doc/decisions/cop-10/cop-10-dec-02-en.pdf, accessed 6 May 2019.
- 131.
Award of 12 July 2016, 386, para. 970.
- 132.
Hearing on the Merits, Transcript, Day 3, 32–34; Award of 12 July 2016, 361, para. 909.
- 133.
Hearing on the Merits, Transcript, Day 3, 33.
- 134.
Ibid., 32; Award of 12 July 2016, 361, para. 909.
- 135.
Award of 12 July 2016, 382, para. 959.
- 136.
Ibid., 384, para. 956.
- 137.
Antonio Cassese, International Law (2nd ed.; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 241.
- 138.
United Nations International Law Commission, Draft articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, with Commentaries 2001, in Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of Its Fifty-Third Session, 23 April–1 June and 2 July–10 August 2001, Official Records of the General Assembly, Fifty-Sixth Session, Supplement No. 10, Doc. A/56/10, 47 (“International Law Commission, ‘Commentaries’”), legal.un.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/commentaries/9_6_2001.pdf, accessed 12 April 2019. The commentary adds that “the conduct of private persons is not as such attributable to the State,” 38, and that “the conduct of a person or group of persons not acting on behalf of the State is not considered as an act of the State under international law,” 52.
- 139.
Ibid., 35.
- 140.
Ibid., quoting United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1980, 3, at 31–32, paras. 63 and 67, https://www.icj-cij.org/files/case-related/64/064-19800524-JUD-01-00-BI.pdf, accessed 12 April 2019.
- 141.
Eduardo Jiménez de Aréchaga, “International Responsibility,” in Max Sørensen (ed.), Manual of Public International Law (London: Macmillan, 1968), 560; Eduardo Jiménez de Aréchaga and Atilla Tanzi, “International State Responsibility,” in Mohammed Bedjaoui (ed.), International Law: Achievements and Prospects (Paris: UNESCO, 1991), 359–60. Jiménez de Aréchaga was member (1970–1979) and President (1976–1979) of the ICJ.
- 142.
Jiménez de Aréchaga, “International Responsibility,” 560–61. The phrase cited is quoted from Corfu Channel Case, Judgment of April 9th, 1949, I.C. J. Reports 1949, 18, https://www.icj-cij.org/files/case-related/1/001-19490409-JUD-01-00-BI.pdf, accessed 12 April 2019.
- 143.
Award of 12 July 2016, 375, para. 944.
- 144.
Ibid., 382, para. 961.
- 145.
Ibid., 383, para. 963.
- 146.
Ibid., para. 964.
- 147.
Ibid.
- 148.
MP, Annex 117, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, People’s Republic of China, Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Liu Weimin’s Regular Press Conference (12 April 2012), vol. V, 109, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20V%20%28Annexes%20103-157%29.pdf, accessed 12 April 2019; quoted in Award of 12 July 2016, 383, para. 964.
- 149.
Award of 12 July 2016, 384, para. 965.
- 150.
Ibid., 475, para. 1202, (12)(b)
- 151.
Ibid., 384, paras. 967–68.
- 152.
Ibid., 385–88, paras. 968–75.
- 153.
Ibid., 386, para. 971.
- 154.
Ibid., 388, para. 975.
- 155.
MP, Annex 21, vol. III, 225–31.
- 156.
Supplemental Documents of the Philippines (19 November 2015), Annex 614, People’s Republic of China, Marine Environment Protection Law of The People’s Republic of China (25 December 1999), vol. I, 101–11 (“SDP”), https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Supplemental%20Documents%20-%20Volume%20I%20%28Annexes%20607-667%29.pdf, accessed 12 April 2019; Fisheries Law of the People’s Republic of China, 2000, cited in Award of 12 July 2016, 387, para. 974.
- 157.
MP, Annex 40, Memorandum from the Embassy of the Republic of the Philippines in Beijing to the Secretary of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines, No. ZPE-24-2000-S (14 March 2000), vol. III, 337–40, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
- 158.
Ibid.
- 159.
MP, Annex 43, vol. III, 3531–55
- 160.
Award of 12 July 2016, 387, para. 974.
- 161.
Ibid., 388, para. 975.
- 162.
Ibid.
- 163.
Ibid. Nilufer Oral observes that this finding of the Tribunal demonstrated its impartiality. Nilufer Oral, “The South China Sea Arbitral Award, Part XII of UNCLOS and the Protection and Preservation of the Marine Environment,” in S. Jayakumar et al. (eds.), The South China Sea Arbitration: The Legal Dimension (Cheltenham, Gloucestershire: Edward Elgar, 2018), 234 (“Oral, ‘The South China Sea Arbitral Award’”).
- 164.
Makane Moïse Mbengue, “The South China Sea Arbitration. Innovation in Marine Environmental Fact-finding and Due Diligence Obligations,” ASIL Unbound (2016): 289.
- 165.
CSIL, 576, para. 784.
- 166.
Ibid., 578, para. 789.
- 167.
Ibid., 578–79, para. 790.
- 168.
Ibid., 580–82, paras. 793–95.
- 169.
Ibid., 582, paras. 796–97.
- 170.
Ibid., 583–84, paras. 800–801.
- 171.
Underscoring supplied in the two sentences.
- 172.
Award of 12 July 2016, 329–30, paras. 853–54.
- 173.
See Fig. 12 in ibid., 331.
- 174.
See Fig. 15 in ibid., 335.
- 175.
SDP (19 November 2015), Annex 699, “Environmental Consequences of Land Reclamation Activities on Various Reefs in the South China Sea (14 November 2015),” by K.E. Carpenter and L.M. Chou, vol. II, 248–49 (“Second Carpenter Report”), https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Supplemental%20Documents%20-%20Volume%20II%20%28Annexes%20608-709%29.pdf, accessed 7 April 2019; Award of 12 July 2016, 330–31, paras. 855–56; Ferse Report, 22. The Ferse Report adds (24) that the cutter-suction dredger is capable of digging a 0.6 meter-deep-pit the size of a football field in one hour.
- 176.
SDP, Annex 670, Note Verbale from the Department of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines to the Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in Manila, No. 14-1180 (4 April 2014), vol. II, 9–12, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Supplemental%20Documents%20-%20Volume%20II%20%28Annexes%20608-709%29.pdf, accessed 7 April 2019.
- 177.
SDP, Annex 672, Note Verbale from the Department of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines to the Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in Manila, No. 14-2093 (6 June 2014), vol. II, 17–20, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Supplemental%20Documents%20-%20Volume%20II%20%28Annexes%20608-709%29.pdf, accessed 7 April 2019.
- 178.
SDP, Annex 673, Note Verbale from the Department of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines to the Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in Manila, No. 14-2276 (23 June 2014), vol. II, 21–24, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Supplemental%20Documents%20-%20Volume%20II%20%28Annexes%20608-709%29.pdf, accessed 7 April 2019.
- 179.
SDP, Annex 674, Note Verbale from the Department of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines to the Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in Manila, No. 14-2307 (24 June 2014), vol. II, 25–27, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Supplemental%20Documents%20-%20Volume%20II%20%28Annexes%20608-709%29.pdf, accessed 7 April 2019.
- 180.
SDP, Annex 679, Note Verbale from the Department of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines to the Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in Manila, No. 14-3504 (10 October 2014), vol. II, 51–54, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Supplemental%20Documents%20-%20Volume%20II%20%28Annexes%20608-709%29.pdf, accessed 7 April 2019; SDP, Annex 677, Note Verbale from the Department of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines to the Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in Manila, No. 14-2889 (18 August 2014), vol. II, 41–44, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Supplemental%20Documents%20-%20Volume%20II%20%28Annexes%20608-709%29.pdf, accessed 7 April 2019.
- 181.
SDP, Annex 609, Republic of the Philippines, Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, Press Release: DA-BFAR, National Scientist condemns the destruction of marine resources in the West Philippine Sea (23 April 2015), vol. I, 11–15, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Supplemental%20Documents%20-%20Volume%20I%20%28Annexes%20607-667%29.pdf, accessed 17 April 2019.
- 182.
SDP, Annex 608, Department of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines, Statement on China’s Reclamation Activities and their Impact on the Region’s Marine Environment (13 April 2015), vol. I, 7–9, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Supplemental%20Documents%20-%20Volume%20I%20%28Annexes%20607-667%29.pdf, accessed 17 April 2019.
- 183.
See the following documents in SDP, vol. II:
1. Annex 671, Verbatim Text of Response by Deputy Chief of Mission, Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in Manila, to Philippine Note Verbale No. 14-1180 dated 04 April 2014 (11 April 2014), 13–16;
2. Annex 675, Note Verbale from the Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in Manila to the Department of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines, No. 14 (PG)-195 (30 June 2014), 29–32;
3. Annex 676, Note Verbale from the Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in Manila to the Department of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines, No. 14 (PG)-197 (4 July 2014);
4. Annex 678, Note Verbale from the Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in Manila to the Department of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines, No. 14 (PG)-264 (2 September 2014), 45–50;
5. Annex 680, Note Verbale from the Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in Manila to the Department of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines, No. 14 (PG)-336 (28 October 2014), 55–59;
6. Annex 681, Note Verbale from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, People’s Republic of China to the Embassy of the Republic of the Philippines in Beijing, No. (2015) Bu Bian Zi No. 5 (20 January 2015), 61–66;
7. Annex 685, Note Verbale from the Embassy of the People’s Republic of China to the Department of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines, No. 15 (PG)-068 (4 March 2015), 83–87;
8. Annex 686, Note Verbale from the Department of Boundary and Ocean Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, People’s Republic of China, to the Embassy of the Republic of the Philippines in Beijing, No. 2015) Bu Bian Zi No. 22 (30 March 2015), 89–93;
9. Annex 687, Note Verbale from the Department of Boundary and Ocean Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, People’s Republic of China, to the Embassy of the Republic of the Philippines in Beijing, No. (2015) Bu Bian Zi No. 23 (30 March 2015), 97–101.
- 184.
MP, Annex 240, vol. VII, 389–437.
- 185.
Second Carpenter Report, 235–92.
- 186.
The Philippines Annexes Cited During the Merits Hearing, Annex 850.
- 187.
Hearing on the Merits, Transcript, Day 4, 185.
- 188.
First Carpenter Report, 395.
- 189.
Second Carpenter Report, 243.
- 190.
Hearing on the Merits, Transcript, Day 4, 155.
- 191.
Ibid., Transcript, Day 3, 51–52; Award of 12 July 2016, 359, para. 903.
- 192.
Hearing on the Merits, Transcript, Day 3, 53; Award of 12 July 2016, 359, para. 903.
- 193.
Hearing on the Merits, Transcript, Day 3, 13.
- 194.
Ibid., 46.
- 195.
Mbengue, 288.
- 196.
SDP, Annex 624, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, People’s Republic of China, Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Hua Chunying’s Regular Press Conference (9 April 2015), vol. I, 165–69, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Supplemental%20Documents%20-%20Volume%20I%20%28Annexes%20607-667%29.pdf, accessed 9 April 2019; quoted in Award of 12 July 2016, 365, para. 917.
- 197.
The Philippines Annexes Cited During the Merits Hearing (Annexes 820–59) (30 November 2015), Annex 820, Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in Canada, An Interview on China’s Construction Activities on the Nansha Islands and Reefs 2015/05/27, 5–10, https://pcacases.com/web/view/7, accessed 26 March 2019; quoted in the Award of 12 July 2016, 365, para. 918.
- 198.
The Philippines’ Annexes Cited During Hearing on Jurisdiction (Annexes 574–583), Annex 579, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, People’s Republic of China, Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Lu Kang’s Remarks on Issues Relating to China’s Construction Activities on the Nansha Islands and Reefs (16 June 2015), 158–59, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/Annexes%20cited%20during%20Hearing%20on%20Jurisdiction%20%28Annexes%20574-583%29.pdf, accessed 17 April 2019; quoted in the Award of 12 July 2016, 365, para. 919.
- 199.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, People’s Republic of China, Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Hong Lei’s Regular Press Conference (6 May 2016), quoted in the Award of 12 July 2016, 365, para. 920.
- 200.
MP, vol. I, 156, para. 6.68.
- 201.
Hearing on the Merits, Transcript, Day 3, 32.
- 202.
Award of 12 July 2016, 361, para. 910.
- 203.
Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1996, 240–42, para. 29, https://www.icj-cij.org/files/case-related/95/095-19960708-ADV-01-00-BI.pdf, accessed 19 April 2019, quoted in Award of 12 July 2016, 374, para. 941.
- 204.
Award of 12 July 2016, 374, para. 941.
- 205.
Iron Rhine Arbitration (Belgium/Netherlands), Award of 24 May 2005, 28, para. 59, https://pcacases.com/web/sendAttach/478, accessed 17 April 2019; quoted in the Award of 12 July 2016, 374, note 1095.
- 206.
Permanent Court of Arbitration, Indus Waters Kishenganga Arbitration (Pakistan v. India). Court of Arbitration Issues Partial Award in First Arbitration Under the Indus Waters Treaty 1960, Press Release, PCA Doc. 87220 (19 February 2013), https://pcacases.com/web/sendAttach/1684, accessed 17 April 2019.
- 207.
Indus Waters Kishenganga Arbitration (Pakistan v. India), Partial Award, 18 February 2013, 170, para. 451, https://pcacases.com/web/sendAttach/1681, accessed 17 April 2019.
- 208.
The Philippines’ Written Responses (Annexes 864–892) (11 March 2016), Annex 872, China State Ocean Administration, “Construction Activities at Nansha Reefs Did Not Affect the Coral Reef Ecosystem” (10 June 2015), 201–8, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Written%20Responses%20%2811%20March%202016%29%20%28Annexes%20864-892%29.pdf, accessed 19 April 2019.
- 209.
Hearing on the Merits, Transcript, Day 4, 182. The document in question was included in the collection The Philippines’ Annexes Cited During the Merits Hearing 30 November 2015 (Annexes 820–859) (30 November 2015), Annex 821, China State Oceanic Administration, “Construction Work at Nansha Reefs Will Not Harm Oceanic Ecosystems” (18 June 2015), 11–16, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Annexes%20cited%20during%20Merits%20Hearing%20%28Annexes%20820-859%29.pdf, accessed 7 April 2019.
- 210.
The Philippines Annexes Cited During the Merits Hearing, Annex 820; Responses of the Philippines to the Tribunal’s 5 February 2016 Request for Comments (11 March 2016), 5–6, paras. 13–15; 7–9, paras. 17–24, https://pcacases.com/web/sendAttach/1849, accessed 19 April 2019.
- 211.
Responses of the Philippines to the Tribunal’s 5 February 2016 Request for Comments, 15–16, paras. 39–41.
- 212.
Award of 12 July 2016, 393, para. 982(h).
- 213.
Ibid., 391–92, para. 982(b).
- 214.
Ibid., 392, para. 982(g).
- 215.
Ibid., para. 982(c).
- 216.
Ibid., 392–93, para. 982(e).
- 217.
Ibid., 393, para. 982(f).
- 218.
Ibid., 391, para. 982(a).
- 219.
Ibid., 392, para. 982(d).
- 220.
Nilufer Oral describes this statement as an example of “Orwellian doublespeak.” Oral, “The South China Sea Arbitral Award,” 238.
- 221.
Award of 12 July 2016, 393–94, para. 982(i).
- 222.
Ferse Report, 60. This summary and Table 5.3 contradict the statements that the SOA failed to explain the impact of the big cutter section dredger on the marine environment and that the Tribunal did not assess contents of the SOA Statement of 18 June 2015 (Annex 821) or the SOA Report of 10 June 2015 (Annex 872). Oral, “The South China Sea Arbitral Award,” 238, 241.
- 223.
Ferse Report, 21–29; Award of 12 July 2016, 331, para. 857.
- 224.
“Benthon” refers collectively to the sedentary plant and animal life living on the sea bottom. The adjective “benthic” means “living at the soil-water interface at the bottom of a sea or lake.” Larousse Dictionary of Science and Technology, 100.
- 225.
The water column is “a vertical section of water from the surface to the bottom of the sea, a lake, a river, etc. The water column is a way of describing the different features found in seawater at different depths.” Cambridge English Dictionary (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019), http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/water-column, accessed 18 April 2019.
- 226.
Ferse Report, 24–25.
- 227.
“Pelagic” is defined as “living in the middle depths and surface of the sea.” Larousse Dictionary of Science and Technology, 805.
- 228.
The Second Carpenter Report explains that sediment particles clog the feeding and respiration valves of corals and shade them, preventing them from getting enough light to photosynthesize. Second Carpenter Report, 263.
- 229.
Larvae do not settle on sand of any sort or on substrates coated with bacterial slime. John E.N. Veron, “Corals: Biology, Skeletal Deposition and Reef Building,” in David Hopley (ed.), Encyclopedia of Modern Coral Reefs: Structure, Form and Process (Dordrecht: Springer, 2011), 279.
- 230.
Ferse Report, 26–27; Second Carpenter Report, pp. 264, 267, 272, Herbivory is defined as “the consumption of plants.” Collins English Dictionary (Glasgow: HarperCollins Publishers, 2019), https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/herbivory, accessed 19 April 2019. For an overview of the impacts of sediment on coral reefs, see Michael J. Risk and Evan Edinger, “Impacts of Sediment on Coral Reefs,” in David Hopley (ed.), Encyclopedia of Modern Coral Reefs: Structure, Form and Process (Dordrecht: Springer, 2011), 575–86. The Second Carpenter Report also devoted some attention to the impact of island-building on seagrass meadows and on reefs adjacent to those where construction took place, but these considerations were not incorporated in the Award. Second Carpenter Report, 263, 271.
- 231.
0.1 mg·L−1 is the same as 0.1 mg/L (milligram per liter), https://onlineconversion.vbulletin.net/forum/main-forums/convert-and-calculate/9350-0-1-mg%C2%B7l-1, accessed 19 April 2019.
- 232.
Ferse Report, 28; Second Carpenter Report, 272.
- 233.
Award of 12 July 2016, 380, para. 979.
- 234.
Ferse Report, 40–43.
- 235.
Award of 12 July 2016, 390, para. 979.
- 236.
Ferse Report, 59.
- 237.
McManus, “Offshore Coral Reef Damage,” 220.
- 238.
United Nations International Law Commission, “Commentaries,” 80, 86, 84.
- 239.
Award of 12 July 2016, 388, para. 976.
- 240.
Ibid., 394, para. 983.
- 241.
Ibid.
- 242.
Ibid., 462, para. 1178.
- 243.
CSIL, 585, para. 809.
- 244.
Ibid.
- 245.
Ibid., 586–87, paras. 810–11. It should be recalled here that this document was found by the Philippines between the first and second rounds of the Hearing on the Merits.
- 246.
Ibid., 585, paras. 806–7.
- 247.
Ferse Report, 4–6, 64–110.
- 248.
Award of 12 July 2016, 15–16, para. 42.
- 249.
Ibid., 15, para. 40. Article 2, para. 2 of the Rules of Procedure provides:
The Arbitral Tribunal may take all appropriate measures in order to establish the facts including, when necessary, the conduct of a visit to the localities to which the case relates. The Parties shall afford the Arbitral Tribunal all reasonable facilities in the event of such a visit.
South China Sea Arbitration, Rules of Procedure, PCA Doc. 101991 (27 August 2013),
https://pcacases.com/web/sendAttach/233, accessed 7 April 2019.
- 250.
Tim Stephens, “Article 197. Cooperation on a Global or Regional Basis,” in Alexander Proelss (ed.), The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. A Commentary (München: Verlag C.H. Beck oHG, 2017), 1329. Stephens gives as examples Article 100, relating to the suppression of piracy, Article 118, on the conservation of the living resources of the high seas, and Article 143(a), concerning the conduct of marine scientific research in the Area.
- 251.
Nilufer Oral, Legal Aspects of Sustainable Development. Regional Co-Operation and Protection of the Marine Environment Under International Law (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2013), 33 (“Oral, Legal Aspects”).
- 252.
Award on Jurisdiction, 1, para. 3; Award of 12 July 2016, 1, para. 3.
- 253.
Carl-August Fleischer, “La pêche [Fisheries],” in René-Jean Dupuy and Daniel Vignes (eds.), Traité du Nouveau Droit de la mer [Treatise on the New Law of the Sea] (Paris: Éditions Economica, 1985), 877.
- 254.
Erick Franckx, “Regional Marine Environment Protection Regimes in the Context of UNCLOS,” The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law 13 (1998): 315; Erik Franckx and Marco Benatar, “The ‘Duty’ to Co-operate for States Bordering Enclosed or Semi-Enclosed Seas,” Chinese (Taiwan) Yearbook of International Law and Affairs 31 (2013): 69–70; Myron H. Nordquist et al. (eds.), United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 Commentary, vol. III, Second Committee: High Seas, Regime of Islands, Enclosed or Semi-Enclosed Seas, and Right of Access of Land-Locked States to and from the Sea and Freedom of Transit (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1995), 39; Nordquist et al., vol. IV, 78; Nilufer Oral, Legal Aspects of Sustainable Development. Regional Co-Operation and Protection of the Marine Environment Under International Law (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2013), 40, 43; Budislav Vukas, “United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and the Polar Marine Environment,” in Davor Vidas (ed.), Protecting the Polar Marine Environment: Law and Policy for Pollution Prevention (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 41; and Budislav Vukas, “Enclosed and Semi-Enclosed Seas,” Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), para. 15.
- 255.
Ingo Winkelmann, “Article 123. Cooperation of States Bordering Enclosed or Semi-Enclosed Seas,” in Alexander Proelss (ed.), The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. A Commentary (München: Verlag C.H. Beck oHG, 2017), 887.
- 256.
Oral, Legal Aspects, 39.
- 257.
Vukas, “United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea,” 47; Vukas, “Enclosed or Semi-Enclosed Seas,” para. 19.
- 258.
Bernard Oxman, “Observations on the Interpretation and Application of Article 43 of UNCLOS With Particular Reference to the Straits of Malacca and Singapore,” Singapore Journal of International and Comparative Law 2 (1998): 409, https://repository.law.miami.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1415&context=fac_articles, accessed 25 February 2019. Oxman was a delegate of the US to the Third UNCLOS III, which drafted the Convention between 1973 and 1982, and one of the legal counsels of the Philippines in the South China Sea Arbitration.
- 259.
Hearing on the Merits, Transcript, Day 3, 40.
- 260.
MOX Plant (Ireland v. United Kingdom), Provisional Measures, Order of 3 December 2001, ITLOS Reports 2001, 100, para. 26(3),
https://www.itlos.org/fileadmin/itlos/documents/cases/case_no_10/published/C10-O-3_dec_01.pdf, accessed 5 April 2019; Oral, Legal Aspects, 40, 42.
- 261.
Hearing on the Merits, Transcript, Day 4, 40–41; Award of 12 July 2016, 394–95, para. 985.
- 262.
MP, Annex 144, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea (4 November 2002), vol. V, 321–25, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20V%20%28Annexes%20103-157%29.pdf, accessed 16 April 2019. The DOC was signed by the 10 members of ASEAN and China. According to paragraph 6 of the DOC “[p]ending a comprehensive and durable settlement of the disputes, the Parties concerned may explore or undertake cooperative activities. These may include the following: a. marine environmental protection….”
- 263.
Hearing on the Merits, Transcript, Day 3, 40–44.
- 264.
Award of 12 July 2016, 475, para. 1202, (13)(b).
- 265.
Ibid., 394–95, paras. 984, 986.
- 266.
Joint Communiqué 48th ASEAN Foreign Ministers Meeting Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 4th August 2015, 25, para. 150, https://www.asean.org/wp-content/uploads/images/2015/August/48th_amm/JOINT%20COMMUNIQUE%20OF%20THE%2048TH%20AMM-FINAL.pdf, accessed 22 March 2019. The ten members of ASEAN are Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam.
- 267.
Oral, “The South China Sea Arbitral Award,” 242.
- 268.
CSIL, 587–88, paras. 811–12.
- 269.
Ibid., 588–89, paras. 813–14.
- 270.
Award of 12 July 2016, 394, para. 986.
- 271.
Neil Craik, The International Law of Environmental Impact Assessment: Process, Substance and Integration (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 4. The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, as amended (Pub. L. 91-190, 42 U.S.C. 4321-4347, January 1, 1970, as amended by Pub. L. 94-52, July 3, 1975, Pub. L. 94-83, August 9, 1975, and Pub. L. 97-258, § 4(b), September 13, 1982), https://ceq.doe.gov/laws-regulations/laws.html, accessed 22 April 2019.
- 272.
These were the Convention for Co-Operation in the Protection and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the West and Central African Region, done at Abidjan on 23 March 1981 and entered into force 5 August 1981, http://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/entri/texts/marine.coastal.west.central.africa.1981.html, accessed 21 April 2019, and the Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and Coastal Areas of the South-East Pacific, done at Lima on 12 November 1981 and entered into force 19 May 1986, http://sedac.ciesin.org/entri/texts/marine.environment.coastal.south.east.pacific.1981.html, accessed 21 April 2019; cited in Craik, 286–87.
- 273.
The fact that the Convention was concluded among a group of developed States at the regional level might also explain why the signatories were willing to adopt stricter requirements. Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context, done at Espoo (Finland), 25 February 1991, entered into force on 10 September 1997, https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/eia/documents/legaltexts/Espoo_Convention_authentic_ENG.pdf, accessed 21 April 2019.
- 274.
Award of 12 July 2016, 395, para. 987.
- 275.
Lingjie Kong, “Environmental Impact Assessment under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea,” Chinese Journal of International Law 10 (2011): 659; Robin Churchill, “The LOS Regime for Protection of the Marine Environment—Fit for the Twenty-First Century?” in Rosemary Rayfuse (ed.), Research Handbook of International Marine Environmental Law (Cheltenham, Gloucestershire: Edward Elgar, 2015), 7.
- 276.
Eike Blitza, “Article 205. Publication of Reports,” in Alexander Proelss (ed.), The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. A Commentary (München: Verlag C.H. Beck oHG, 2017), 1367–68.
- 277.
Birnie, Boyle and Redgewell, 169. The two cases are The MOX Plant Case (Ireland v. United Kingdom), Provisional Measures, Order of 3 December 2001, ITLOS Reports 2001, 110, para. 82, https://www.itlos.org/cases/list-of-cases/case-no-10/, accessed 23 April 2019, and Case Concerning Land Reclamation by Singapore in and Around the Straits of Johor (Malaysia v. Singapore), Provisional Measures, Order of 8 October 2003, ITLOS Reports 2003, 25, para. 92, https://www.itlos.org/cases/list-of-cases/case-no-12/, 23 April 2019.
- 278.
Laura Pineschi, “The Duty of Environmental Impact Assessment in the First ITLOS Chamber Advisory Opinion: Toward the Supremacy of the General Rule to Protect and Preserve the Marine Environment as a Common Value?” in Nerina Boschiero et al. International Courts and the Development of International Law. Essays in Honour of Tullio Treves (The Hague: T.M.C. Asser Press, 2013), 427, 431.
- 279.
Hearing on the Merits, Transcript, Day 3, 34–36; Award of 12 July 2016, 362, para. 911.
- 280.
Hearing on the Merits, Transcript, Day 3, 38–39; Award of 12 July 2016, 362, para. 910. See United Nations International Law Commission, “International Liability for Injurious Consequences Arising Out of Acts Not Prohibited by International Law (Prevention of Transboundary Harm From Hazardous Activities)”, in Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of Its Fifty-Third Session (23 April–1 June and 2 July–10 August 2001), UN Doc. GAOR A/56/10 (2001), 405, http://www.un.org/documents/ga/docs/56/a5610.pdf, accessed 23 April 2019.
- 281.
Hearing on the Merits, Transcript, Day 3, 38–39; Award of 12 July 2016, 362, para. 911.
- 282.
Hearing on the Merits, Transcript, Day 4, 183.
- 283.
The Philippines’ Annexes Cited During the Merits Hearing, Annex 820, 5–10.
- 284.
Hearing on the Merits, Transcript, Day 4, 182–83.
- 285.
Ibid., Day 4, 185; The Philippines’ Annexes Cited During the Merits Hearing, Annex 821, 11–16.
- 286.
Responses of the Philippines to the Tribunal’s 5 February 2016 Request for Comments, 7–9, paras. 17–24. The following were the documents found by the Tribunal and transmitted to the Philippines for comments:
1. Annex 864, China State Oceanic Administration, The Guidance for the Assessment of Coastal Marine Ecosystem Health, Marine Industry Standards of the People’s Republic of China, No. HY/T 087-2005 (2005);
2. Annex 865, China State Oceanic Administration, “2012 Communique on Marine Environment of China, Part 2: Marine Biodiversity and Ecological Conditions” (1 April 2013);
3. Annex 866, China State Oceanic Administration, Code of Practice for Marine Monitoring Technology, Part 5: Marine Ecology, Marine Industry Standards of the People’s Republic of China, No. HY/T 147.5-2013 (25 April 2013);
4. Annex 867, China State Oceanic Administration, “2013 Communique on Marine Environment of China, Part 2: Conditions of Marine Ecology” (25 March 2014);
5. Annex 868, China State Oceanic Administration, Technical Guidelines for Environmental Impact Assessment of Marine Engineering, National Standards of the People’s Republic of China, No. GB/T 19485-2014 (1 April 2014);
6. Annex 870, China State Oceanic Administration, “2014 Communique on Marine Environment of China, Part 2: Conditions of Marine Ecology” (16 March 2015);
7. Annex 871, China State Oceanic Administration, South China Sea Branch, “Communique on the Oceanic Conditions of the South China Sea Region in 2014” (28 May 2015);
8. Annex 872, China State Oceanic Administration, “Construction Activities at Nansha Reefs Did Not Affect the Coral Reef Ecosystem” (10 June 2015).
All of these documents were published in https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Written%20Responses%20%2811%20March%202016%29%20%28Annexes%20864-892%29.pdf, accessed 19 April 2019.
- 287.
The Philippines’ Written Responses (Annexes 864–892), Annex 872.
- 288.
Responses of the Philippines to the Tribunal’s 5 February 2016 Request for Comments., 14–15, para. 36.
- 289.
Hearing on the Merits, Transcript, Day 3, 35–39.
- 290.
Ibid., Transcript, Day 4, 183; Award of 12 July 2016, 363, para. 911.
- 291.
Award of 12 July 2016, 377, para. 947.
- 292.
Oral, “The South China Sea Arbitral Award,” 239.
- 293.
Award of 12 July 2016, 377, para. 947.
- 294.
Ibid., 395, para. 988.
- 295.
Ibid., 365, para. 917.
- 296.
Ibid., 366, para. 922.
- 297.
Ibid., 395, para. 989. The passage quoted is from Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua) and Construction of a Road in Costa Rica Along the San Juan River (Nicaragua v. Costa Rica), Merits Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2015, 57, para. 154, https://www.icj-cij.org/files/case-related/152/152-20151216-JUD-01-00-BI.pdf, accessed 23 April 2019.
- 298.
Award of 12 July 2016, 396, para. 989.
- 299.
SDP, Annex 615, People’s Republic of China, Law of the People’s Republic of China on Evaluation of Environmental Effects (28 October 2002), Article 4, 114–23, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Supplemental%20Documents%20-%20Volume%20I%20%28Annexes%20607-667%29.pdf, accessed 9 April 2019; Award of 12 July 2016, 396, para. 990.
- 300.
Award of 12 July 2016, 396, para. 990.
- 301.
Ilias Plakokefalos, “Environmental Law Aspects of the South China Sea Arbitration Award,” Symposium on the South China Sea Award, Netherlands Institute for the Law of the Sea (NILOS), Utrecht Centre for Oceans Water and Sustainability Law, School of Law Utrecht University, 7 December 2016, 16, https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2880624, accessed 23 April 2019.
- 302.
Pineschi, 425.
- 303.
People’s Republic of China, State Environmental Protection Administration of China, China’s 2nd National Report on Implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity (Beijing: China Environmental Science Press, 2001), 55, 78, 121, https://www.cbd.int/reports, accessed 23 April 2019.
- 304.
Ibid., China’s Third National Report on Implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity (Beijing: State Environmental Protection Administration of China, 2005), 136, https://www.cbd.int/reports, accessed 23 April 2019.
- 305.
Award of 12 July 2016, 396, para. 990.
- 306.
Chie Kojima, “South China Sea Arbitration and the Protection of the Marine Environment: Evolution of UNCLOS Part XII Through Interpretation and the Duty to Cooperate,” Asian Yearbook of International Law 21 (2015): 177.
- 307.
Mbengue, 287.
- 308.
Nilufer Oral sees this move of the Tribunal’s as a “clever twist,” rather than as a sign of prudence. Oral, “The South China Sea Arbitral Award,” 240.
- 309.
Hearing on the Merits, Transcript, Day 4, 181–82.
- 310.
Award of 12 July 2016, 397, para. 991.
- 311.
Ibid., 378, para. 948.
- 312.
Ibid., 475, para. 1202, (13)(c).
- 313.
Yoshifumi Tanaka, “The South China Sea Arbitration: Environmental Obligations Under the Law of the Sea Convention,” Review of European, Comparative and International Environmental Law 27 (2018): 96.
- 314.
CSIL, 592, para. 820.
- 315.
Ibid., 590, para. 817.
- 316.
Ibid., 591, para. 817.
- 317.
Ibid., 591–92, para. 820.
- 318.
Ibid., 591, para. 819.
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———. Annex 16. Memorandum to the Assistant Secretary, Office of Asian and Pacific Affairs, Department of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines (23 March 1992). Vol. III, 201–204, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
———. Annex 19. Memorandum from Erlinda F. Basilio, Acting Assistant Secretary, Office of Asian and Pacific Affairs, Department of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines, to the Secretary of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines (29 March 1995). Vol. III, 213–17, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
———. Annex 20. Memorandum from Lauro L. Baja, Jr., Assistant Secretary, Office of Asian and Pacific Affairs, Department of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines, to the Secretary of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines (7 April 1995). Vol. III, 219–24, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
———. Annex 21. Memorandum from the Ambassador of the Republic of the Philippines in Beijing to the Undersecretary of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines (10 April 1995). Vol. III, 225–31, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
———. Annex 29. Memorandum from the Assistant Secretary for Asian and Pacific Affairs, Department of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines, to the Secretary of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines (23 March 1998). Vol. III, 277–82, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
———. Annex 41. Situation Report the Philippine Navy to the Chief of Staff, Armed Forces of the Philippines, No. 004-18074 (18 April 2000). Vol. III, 341–44, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
———. Annex 42. Letter from Vice Admiral, Armed Forces of the Philippines, to Secretary of National Defense of the Republic of the Philippines (27 May 2000). Vol. III, 345–50, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
———. Annex 43. Memorandum from the Embassy of the Republic of the Philippines in Beijing to the Secretary of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines, No. ZPE-06-2001-S (13 February 2001). Vol. III, 351–55, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
———. Annex 44. Memorandum from Acting Secretary of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines to the President of the Republic of the Philippines (5 February 2001). Vol. III, 357–62, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
———. Annex 45. Memorandum from the Assistant Secretary for Asian and Pacific Affairs, Department of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines, to the Secretary of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines (14 February 2001). Vol. III, 363–68, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
———. Annex 46. Office of Asian and Pacific Affairs, Department of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines, Apprehension of Four Chinese Fishing Vessels in the Scarborough Shoal (23 February 2001). Vol. III, 369–74, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
———. Annex 47. Memorandum from the Embassy of the Republic of the Philippines in Beijing to the Secretary of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines, No. ZPE-09-2001-S (17 March 2001). Vol. III, 375–78, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
———. Annex 49. Memorandum from Perfecto C. Pascual, Director, Naval Operation Center, Philippine Navy, to The Flag Officer in Command, Philippine Navy (11 February 2002). Vol. III, 395–97, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
———. Annex 50. Letter from Vice Admiral, Philippine Navy, to the Assistant Secretary for Asian and Pacific Affairs, Department of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines (26 March 2002). Vol. III, 399–404, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
———. Annex 51. Memorandum from Josue L. Villa, Embassy of the Republic of the Philippines in Beijing, to the Secretary of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines (19 August 2002). Vol. III, 405–9, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
———. Annex 52. Report from CNS to Flag Officer in Command, Philippine Navy, File No. N2D-0802-401 (1 September 2002). Vol. III, 411–14, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
———. Annex 57. Letter from Rear Admiral, Armed Forces of the Philippines, to the Assistant Secretary for Asian and Pacific Affairs, Department of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines (2006). Vol. III, 461–80, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
———. Annex 59. Report from the Commanding Officer, NAVSOU-2, Philippine Navy, to the Acting Commander, Naval Task Force 21, Philippine Navy, No. NTF21-0406-011/NTF21 OPLAN (BANTAY AMIANAN) 01-05 (9 April 2006). Vol. III, 485–502, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
———. Annex 75. Memorandum from the Embassy of the Republic of the Philippines in Beijing to the Secretary of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines, No. ZPE-121-2011-S (2 December 2011). Vol. IV, 121–24, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20IV%20%28Annexes%2061-102%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
———. Annex 77. Memorandum from Colonel, Philippine Navy, to Chief of Staff, Armed Forces of the Philippines, No. N2E-0412-008 (11 April 2012). Vol. IV, 131–47, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20IV%20%28Annexes%2061-102%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
———. Annex 78. Report from the Commanding Officer, SARV-003, Philippine Coast Guard, to Commander, Coast Guard District Northwestern Luzon, Philippine Coast Guard (28 April 2012). Vol. IV, 147–59, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20IV%20%28Annexes%2061-102%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
———. Annex 94. Armed Forces of the Philippines, Near-Occupation of Chinese Vessels of Second Thomas (Ayungin) Shoal in the Early Weeks of May 2012 (May 2013). Vol. IV, 333–46, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20IV%20%28Annexes%2061-102%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
———. Annex 117. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Liu Weimin’s Regular Press Conference on April 12, 2012 (12 April 2012). Vol. V, 109–14, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20V%20%28Annexes%20103-157%29.pdf, accessed 16 April 2019.
———. Annex 144. Association of Southeast Asian Nations, Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in South China Sea (4 November 2002). Vol. V, 321–25, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20V%20%28Annexes%20103-157%29.pdf, accessed 16 April 2019.
———. Annex 211. Note Verbale from the Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in Manila to the Department of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines, No. (12) PG-239 (25 May 2012). Vol. VI, 401–4, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20VI%20%28Annexes%20158-221%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
———. Annex 240. Eastern South China Sea Environmental Disturbances and Irresponsible Fishing Practices and their Effects on Coral Reefs and Fisheries (22 March 2014), by Kent E. Carpenter, Ph.D. Vol. VII, 389–437, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20VII%20%28Annexes%20222-255%29.pdf, accessed 7 April 2019.
———. The Philippines’ Annexes Cited During Hearing on Jurisdiction (Annexes 574–583). Annex 579. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, People’s Republic of China, Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Lu Kang’s Remarks on Issues Relating to China’s Construction Activities on the Nansha Islands and Reefs (16 June 2015), 158–59, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/Annexes%20cited%20during%20Hearing%20on%20Jurisdiction%20%28Annexes%20574-583%29.pdf, accessed 17 April 2019;.
———. The Philippines Annexes Cited During the Merits Hearing (Annexes 820–59) (30 November 2015). Annex 850. “Offshore Coral Reef Damage, Overfishing and Paths to Peace in the South China Sea,” by John W. McManus, 578–608, https://pcacases.com/web/view/7, accessed 26 March 2019.
———. Annex 820. Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in Canada, An Interview on China’s Construction Activities on the Nansha Islands and Reefs 27 May 2015, 5–10, https://pcacases.com/web/view/7, accessed 26 March 2019.
———. Annex 821. China State Oceanic Administration, “Construction Work at Nansha Reefs Will Not Harm Oceanic Ecosystems” (18 June 2015), 11–16, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Annexes%20cited%20during%20Merits%20Hearing%20%28Annexes%20820-859%29.pdf, accessed 7 April 2019.
———. The Philippines’ Written Responses (Annexes 864–892) (11 March 2016). Annex 864. China State Oceanic Administration, The Guidance for the Assessment of Coastal Marine Ecosystem Health, Marine Industry Standards of the People’s Republic of China, No. HY/T 087-2005 (2005), 5–7, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Written%20Responses%20%2811%20March%202016%29%20%28Annexes%20864-892%29.pdf, accessed 19 April 2019.
———. Annex 865. China State Oceanic Administration. “2012 Communique on Marine Environment of China, Part 2: Marine Biodiversity and Ecological Conditions” (1 April 2013), 8–21, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Written%20Responses%20%2811%20March%202016%29%20%28Annexes%20864-892%29.pdf, accessed 19 April 2019.
———. Annex 866. China State Oceanic Administration. Code of Practice for Marine Monitoring Technology, Part 5: Marine Ecology, Marine Industry Standards of the People’s Republic of China, No. HY/T 147.5-2013 (25 April 2013), 22–24, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Written%20Responses%20%2811%20March%202016%29%20%28Annexes%20864-892%29.pdf, accessed 19 April 2019.
———. Annex 867. China State Oceanic Administration, “2013 Communique on Marine Environment of China, Part 2: Conditions of Marine Ecology” (25 March 2014), 25–36, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Written%20Responses%20%2811%20March%202016%29%20%28Annexes%20864-892%29.pdf, accessed 19 April 2019.
———. Annex 868. China State Oceanic Administration. Technical Guidelines for Environmental Impact Assessment of Marine Engineering, National Standards of the People’s Republic of China, No. GB/T 19485 -2014 (1 April 2014), 37–128, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Written%20Responses%20%2811%20March%202016%29%20%28Annexes%20864-892%29.pdf, accessed 19 April 2019.
———. Annex 869. China State Oceanic Administration, South China Sea Branch, “Communique on the Oceanic Conditions of the South China Seas Region in 2013” (14 August 2014), 129–54, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Written%20Responses%20%2811%20March%202016%29%20%28Annexes%20864-892%29.pdf, accessed 19 April 2019.
———. Annex 870. China State Oceanic Administration, “2014 Communique on Marine Environment of China, Part 2: Conditions of Marine Ecology” (16 March 2015), https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Written%20Responses%20%2811%20March%202016%29%20%28Annexes%20864-892%29.pdf, accessed 19 April 2019.
———. Annex 871. China State Oceanic Administration, South China Sea Branch, “Communique on the Oceanic Conditions of the South China Sea Region in 2014” (28 May 2015), 160–70, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Written%20Responses%20%2811%20March%202016%29%20%28Annexes%20864-892%29.pdf, accessed 19 April 2019.
———. Annex 872. China State Oceanic Administration, “Construction Activities at Nansha Reefs Did Not Affect the Coral Reef Ecosystem” (10 June 2015), 201–208, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Written%20Responses%20%2811%20March%202016%29%20%28Annexes%20864-892%29.pdf, accessed 19 April 2019.
———. Philippines Written Responses to the Tribunal’s November 2015 Questions (Annexes 860–63) (18 December 2015). Annex 862. “Why Are Chinese Fishermen Destroying Coral Reefs in the South China Sea?,” by Rupert Wingfield-Hayes, BBC (15 December 2015), 14–24, http://www.pcacases.com/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Written%20Responses%20to%20the%20Tribunal%27s%20November%202015%20Question%20%28Annexes%20860-863%29.pdf, accessed 11 April 2019.
———. Responses of the Philippines to the Tribunal’s 5 February 2016 Request for Comments (11 March 2016), https://pcacases.com/web/sendAttach/1849, accessed 19 April 2019.
———. Rules of Procedure. PCA Doc. 101991 (27 August 2013), https://pcacases.com/web/sendAttach/233, accessed 7 April 2019.
———. Supplemental Documents of the Philippines (19 November 2015). Annex 615. People’s Republic of China. Law of the People’s Republic of China on Evaluation of Environmental Effects (28 October 2002), 114–23, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Supplemental%20Documents%20-%20Volume%20I%20%28Annexes%20607-667%29.pdf, accessed 9 April 2019.
———. Annex 624. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, People’s Republic of China, Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Hua Chunying’s Regular Press Conference (9 April 2015). Vol. I, 165–69, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Supplemental%20Documents%20-%20Volume%20I%20%28Annexes%20607-667%29.pdf, accessed 9 April 2019.
———. Annex 608, Department of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines, Statement on China’s Reclamation Activities and Their Impact on the Region’s Marine Environment (13 April 2015). Vol. I, 7–9, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Supplemental%20Documents%20-%20Volume%20I%20%28Annexes%20607-667%29.pdf, accessed 17 April 2019.
———. Annex 609. Republic of the Philippines, Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, Press Release: DA-BFAR, National Scientist Condemns the Destruction of Marine Resources in the West Philippine Sea (23 April 2015). Vol. I, 11–15, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Supplemental%20Documents%20-%20Volume%20I%20%28Annexes%20607-667%29.pdf, accessed 17 April 2019.
———. Annex 670. Note Verbale from the Department of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines to the Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in Manila, No. 14-1180 (4 April 2014). Vol. II, 9–12, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Supplemental%20Documents%20-%20Volume%20II%20%28Annexes%20608-709%29.pdf, accessed 7 April 2019.
———. Annex 671. Verbatim Text of Response by Deputy Chief of Mission, Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in Manila, to Philippine Note Verbale No. 14-1180 dated 4 April 2014 (11 April 2014). Vol. II, 13–16, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Supplemental%20Documents%20-%20Volume%20II%20%28Annexes%20608-709%29.pdf, accessed 7 April 2019.
———. Annex 672. Note Verbale from the Department of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines to the Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in Manila, No. 14-2093 (6 June 2014). Vol. II, 17–20, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Supplemental%20Documents%20-%20Volume%20II%20%28Annexes%20608-709%29.pdf, accessed 7 April 2019.
———. Annex 673. Note Verbale from the Department of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines to the Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in Manila, No. 14-2276 (23 June 2014). Vol. II, 21–24, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Supplemental%20Documents%20-%20Volume%20II%20%28Annexes%20608-709%29.pdf, accessed 7 April 2019.
———. Annex 675. Note Verbale from the Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in Manila to the Department of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines, No. 14 (PG)-195 (30 June 2014). Vol. II, 29–32, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Supplemental%20Documents%20-%20Volume%20II%20%28Annexes%20608-709%29.pdf, accessed 7 April 2019.
———. Annex 676. Note Verbale from the Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in Manila to the Department of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines, No. 14 (PG)-197 (4 July 2014). Vol. II, 35–39, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Supplemental%20Documents%20-%20Volume%20II%20%28Annexes%20608-709%29.pdf, accessed 7 April 2019.
———. Annex 678. Note Verbale from the Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in Manila to the Department of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines, No. 14 (PG)-264 (2 September 2014). Vol. II, 45–50, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Supplemental%20Documents%20-%20Volume%20II%20%28Annexes%20608-709%29.pdf, accessed 7 April 2019.
———. Annex 680. Note Verbale from the Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in Manila to the Department of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines, No. 14 (PG)-336 (28 October 2014). Vol. II, 55–59, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Supplemental%20Documents%20-%20Volume%20II%20%28Annexes%20608-709%29.pdf, accessed 7 April 2019.
———. Annex 681. Note Verbale from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, People’s Republic of China to the Embassy of the Republic of the Philippines in Beijing, No. (2015) Bu Bian Zi No. 5 (20 January 2015). Vol. II, 61–66, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Supplemental%20Documents%20-%20Volume%20II%20%28Annexes%20608-709%29.pdf, accessed 7 April 2019.
———. Annex 685. Note Verbale from the Embassy of the People’s Republic of China to the Department of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines, No. 15 (PG)-068 (4 March 2015). Vol. II, 83–87, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Supplemental%20Documents%20-%20Volume%20II%20%28Annexes%20608-709%29.pdf, accessed 7 April 2019.
———. Annex 686. Note Verbale from the Department of Boundary and Ocean Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, People’s Republic of China, to the Embassy of the Republic of the Philippines in Beijing, No (2015) Bu Bian Zi No. 22 (30 March 2015). Vol. II, 89–93, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Supplemental%20Documents%20-%20Volume%20II%20%28Annexes%20608-709%29.pdf, accessed 7 April 2019.
———. Annex 687. Note Verbale from the Department of Boundary and Ocean Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, People’s Republic of China, to the Embassy of the Republic of the Philippines in Beijing, No. (2015) Bu Bian Zi No. 23 (30 March 2015). Vol. II, 97–101, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Supplemental%20Documents%20-%20Volume%20II%20%28Annexes%20608-709%29.pdf, accessed 7 April 2019.
________. Annex 699. Environmental Consequences of Land Reclamation Activities on Various Reefs in the south China Sea (14 November 2015), by K. E. Carpenter and L. M. Chou, Vol. II, 245–94, http://www.pcacases.com/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Supplemental%20Documents%20-%20Volume%20II%20%28Annexes%20608-709%29.pdf, accessed 7 April 2019.
———. Supplemental Written Submission of the Philippines (16 March 2015). Vol. I, http://www.pcacases.com/pcadocs/Supplemental%20Written%20Submission%20Volume%20I.pdf, accessed 5 April 2019.
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Robles Jr., A. (2020). Endangered Species, Fragile Ecosystems, and the Obligation to Protect and Preserve the Marine Environment. In: Endangered Species and Fragile Ecosystems in the South China Sea. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9813-1_5
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