Abstract
The South China Sea is a large marine ecosystem characterized by a high degree of biodiversity, but its living resources have been overexploited for decades now. As a result of overexploitation, fishing incidents between China and the Philippines increased from the mid-1990s onward, involving Chinese fishermen harvesting endangered species, such as corals, giant clams, and sea turtles. China’s construction activities at Mischief Reef also prompted Philippine protests. Following the failure of bilateral mechanisms to resolve its various disputes with China relating to the South China Sea, the Philippines initiated arbitration under Annex VII of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on 22 January 2013. The Philippines alleged that China had breached its obligation to protect and preserve the marine environment under the Convention by tolerating the activities of Chinese nationals who harvested endangered species and engaged in cyanide and dynamite fishing and by undertaking construction activities on Mischief Reef and several maritime features in the South China Sea. The proceedings are remarkable for the efforts of the Tribunal to ensure that its decisions were well founded in fact and law and, somewhat surprisingly, for China’s informal participation in the proceedings.
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Notes
- 1.
South China Sea Arbitration, Award on Jurisdiction and Admissibility, 29 October 2015, 1, para. 3 (“Award on Jurisdiction”), https://pcacases.com/web/sendAttach/1506, accessed 29 March 2019. An enclosed or semi-enclosed sea is “a gulf, basin or sea surrounded by two or more States and connected to another sea or the ocean by a narrow outlet or consisting entirely or primarily of the territorial seas and exclusive economic zones of two or more coastal States.” Article 122 , United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, concluded at Montego Bay on 10 December, entered into force on 16 November 1994, http://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/closindx.htm, accessed 21 March 2019.
- 2.
John W. McManus, “Offshore Coral Reef Damage, Overfishing and Paths to Peace in the South China Sea,” The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law 32 (2017): 201; also accessible as Annex 850 in The Philippines Annexes Cited During the Merits Hearing (Annexes 820–59) (30 November 2015), 578–608, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Annexes%20cited%20during%20Merits%20Hearing%20%28Annexes%20820-859%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019. The documentary annexes of the Philippine submissions are not paginated, and the Tribunal’s decisions do not even indicate the volume in which an annex is to be found. For the reader’s convenience, volume and page numbers are provided in this and other notes.
- 3.
Kenneth Sherman and Gotthilf Hempel, “Perspectives on Regional Seas and the Large Marine Ecosystem Approach,” in Kenneth Sherman and Gotthilf Hempel (eds.), The UNEP Large Marine Ecosystems Report: A Perspective on Changing Conditions in LMEs of the World’s Regional Seas (Nairobi: United Nations Environment Programme, 2009), 5, http://lme.edc.uri.edu/index.php/reports-and-workbooks/92-unep-lme-report, accessed 20 February 2019.
- 4.
Echinodermata is a phylum of radially symmetrical marine animals, having the body wall strengthened by calcareous plates; there is a complex coelom; locomotion is usually carried out by the tube feet, which is distensible finger-like protrusions of a part of the coelom known as the water vascular system; the larva is bilaterally symmetrical and shows traces of metamerism; starfish, sea urchins, brittle stars, sea cucumbers, and sea lilies. Larousse Dictionary of Science and Technology (Edinburgh: Larousse plc, 1995), 349.
- 5.
Mangrove swamps were defined by the Contracting Parties to the 1971 Ramsar Convention as
forested intertidal ecosystems that occupy sediment-rich sheltered tropical coastal environments, occurring from about 32º N (Bermuda Island) to almost 39º S (Victoria, Australia)…. Mangrove swamps are characterized by salt-tolerant woody plants with morphological, physiological, and reproductive adaptations that enable them to colonize littoral habitats. The term mangrove is used in at least two different ways: a) to refer to the ecosystem composed of these plants, associated flora, fauna and their physico-chemical environment; and b) to describe those plant species (of different families and genera) that have common adaptations which allow them to cope with salty and oxygen-depleted (anaerobic) substrates.
8th Meeting of the Conference of the Contracting Parties to the Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar, Iran, 1971), “Wetlands: Water, Life, and Culture,” Valencia, Spain, 18–26 November 2002, Resolution VIII.11, Guidance for Identifying and Designating Peatlands, Wet Grasslands, Mangroves and Coral Reefs as Wetlands of International Importance, 10, para. 52, www.ramsar.org/sites/default/files/documents/pdf/res/key_res_viii_11_e.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019. Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat, signed at Ramsar, Iran, on 2 February 1971, as amended by the Protocol of 3 December 1982 and the Amendments of 28 May 1987, https://www.ramsar.org/sites/default/files/documents/library/current_convention_text_e.pdf, accessed 24 March 2019.
- 6.
“Seagrasses are a type of submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV) [that] have evolved from terrestrial plants and have become specialized to live in the marine environment. Like terrestrial plants, seagrasses have leaves, roots, conducting tissues, flowers and seeds, and manufacture their own food via photosynthesis. Unlike terrestrial plants, however, seagrasses do not possess the strong, supportive stems and trunks required to overcome the force of gravity on land. Rather, seagrass blades are supported by the natural buoyancy of water, remaining flexible when exposed to waves and currents.” K. Hill, “Indian River Lagoon Species Inventory: Seagrass Habitats,” Smithsonian Marine Station at Fort Pierce (2002), http://www.sms.si.edu/irlspec/Seagrass_Habitat.htm, accessed 11 March 2017.
- 7.
South China Sea Arbitration, Independent Expert Report, Assessment of the Potential Environmental Consequences of Construction Activities on Seven Reefs in the Spratly Islands in the South China Sea, by Sebastian C. A. Ferse, Peter Mumby, and Selina Ward, 26 April 2016, 12–15 (“Ferse Report”), https://pcacases.com/web/sendAttach/1809, accessed 24 March 2019.
- 8.
Danwei Huang et al., “Extraordinary Diversity of Reef Corals in the South China Sea,” Marine Biodiversity 45 (2017): 161.
- 9.
In geology, a continental shelf is the gently sloping offshore zone, extending usually to about 200 meters in depth. Larousse Dictionary of Science and Technology, 242. Article 76(1) of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea defines the continental shelf as
the sea-bed and subsoil of the submarine areas that extend beyond its territorial sea throughout the natural prolongation of its land territory to the outer edge of the continental margin, or to a distance of 200 nautical miles from the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured where the outer edge of the continental margin does not extend up to that distance.
- 10.
T. Spencer and M. D. Spalding, “The Coral Reefs of Southeast of Southeast Asia: Controls, Patterns and Human Impacts,” in A. Gupta (ed.), Physical Geography of Southeast Asia (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 417. An atoll is a coral reef usually forming a circular, elliptical, or irregular chain of islets around a shallow lagoon and surrounded by deep water of the open tropical sea. Larousse Dictionary of Science and Technology, 68.
- 11.
Benthic species live at the soil–water interface at the bottom of a sea or lake. Larousse Dictionary of Science and Technology, 100.
- 12.
Ma. Carmen A. Ablan-Lagman, “The Spratly Islands,” in Charles Sheppard (ed.), World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation, Vol. II: The Indian Ocean to the Pacific (London: Academic Press, 2019), 587.
- 13.
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Coral Reefs in the South China Sea (Bangkok: UNEP, 2004), 6, http://www.ais.unwater.org/ais/aiscm/getprojectdoc.php?docid=3527#page=1&zoom=auto,-99,792, accessed 15 March 2019.
- 14.
Louise S. L. Teh, et al., “What Is at Stake? Status and Threats to South China Sea Marine Fisheries,” AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment 46 (2017): 61.
- 15.
Ibid. For a description of Penaeid shrimps, see Kent E. Carpenter, The Living Marine Resources of the Western Atlantic, Vol. I: Introduction, Molluscs, Crustaceans, Hagfishes, Sharks, Batoid fishes and Chimaeras (Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization, 2002), 263, http://www.fao.org/3/y4160e/y4160e18.pdf, accessed 10 March 2019.
- 16.
See Fig.4.1 in David Rosenberg, “Fisheries Management in the South China Sea,” in Sam Bateman and Ralf Emmers (eds.), Security and International Politics in the South China Sea: Towards a Co-operative Management Regime (London: Routledge, 2009), 62.
- 17.
Liane Talaue-McManus, Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis for the South China Sea (Bangkok: United Nations Environment Programme, 2000), 40, http://www.unepscs.org/remository/Download/01_-_Project_Development/PDF-B_Phase/Transboundary_Diagnostic_Analysis/Transboundary_Diagnostic_Analysis_for_the_South_China_Sea.html, accessed 5 March 2019; Hiroyuki Yanagawa, “Small Pelagic Resources in the South China Sea,” in M. Devara and P. Marftusubroto (eds.), Small Pelagic Resources and Their Fisheries in the Asia-Pacific Region. Proceedings of APFIC [Asia-Pacific Fisheries Commission] Working Party on Marine Fisheries, First Session, 13–16 May 1997 (Bangkok: FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 1997), 365–80, http://www.fao.org/3/a-an020e.pdf, accessed 5 March 2019.
- 18.
Trophic level is defined as “broad class of organisms within an ecosystem characterized by mode of food supply. The first trophic level comprises the green plants, the second is the herbivores, and the third is the carnivores, which eat the herbivores.” Larousse Dictionary of Science and Technology, 1134.
- 19.
UNEP, 5.
- 20.
Simon Funge-Smith et al., Regional Overview of Fisheries and Aquaculture in Asia and the Pacific 2012 (Bangkok: FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 2012), 15, http://www.fao.org/3/i3185e/i3185e00.pdf, accessed 20 February 2019; McManus, 206.
- 21.
McManus, 208.
- 22.
Lauretta Burke et al., Reefs at Risk Revisited (Washington, DC: World Resources Institute, 2011), 54–55, https://wriorg.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/pdf/reefs_at_risk_revisited_hi-res.pdf?_ga=2.177507173.1364385348.1552820007-1064952833.1552820007, accessed 17 March 2019.
- 23.
UNEP, 4; Huang et al., 157; Si Tuan Vo et al., “Status and Trends in Coastal Habitats of the South China Sea,” Ocean & Coastal Management 85 (2013): 157.
- 24.
Ferse Report, 3.
- 25.
Funge-Smith et al., 15.
- 26.
Unless otherwise indicated, the following paragraph is summarized from Hongzhou Zhang, “Chinese Fishermen in Disputed Waters: Not Quite a ‘People’s War’,” Marine Policy 68 (2016): 65–73, and Hongzhou Zhang, “Chinese Fishermen at Frontline of Maritime Disputes: An Alternative Explanation,” RSIS [Rajaratnam School of International Studies] Commentaries 152 (2016), http://hdl.handle.net/10220/40776, accessed 13 February 2019.
- 27.
Funge-Smith et al., 15.
- 28.
S. Heileman, “South China Sea,” in Kenneth Sherman and Gotthilf Hempel (eds.), The UNEP Large Marine Ecosystems Report: A Perspective on Changing Conditions in LMEs of the World’s Regional Seas (Nairobi: United Nations Environment Programme, 2009), 303, http://lme.edc.uri.edu/index.php/reports-and-workbooks/92-unep-lme-report, accessed 20 February 2019.
- 29.
Daniel Yarrow Coulter, “South China Sea Fisheries: Countdown to Calamity,” Contemporary Southeast Asia 17 (1996): 384.
- 30.
Ibid., 383.
- 31.
Funge-Smith et al., 15.
- 32.
Coulter, 384.
- 33.
Brian Morton, “Fishing for Diplomacy in China’s Seas,” Marine Pollution Bulletin 46 (2003): 795.
- 34.
Ibid.
- 35.
Nguyen Dang Tang, “Fisheries Co-operation in the South China Sea and the (Ir)relevance of the Sovereignty Question,” Asian Journal of International Law 2 (2012): 65.
- 36.
Figures calculated by the author from Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), “Are Maritime Law Enforcement Forces Destabilizing Asia?”, China Power Project (2018), https://chinapower.csis.org/maritime-forces-destabilizing-asia/, accessed 26 October 2018.
- 37.
Scientific name sarda sarda, Tuna Species Guide (2019), http://www.atuna.com/index.php/en/tuna-info/tuna-species-guide#bonito, accessed 26 March 2019.
- 38.
Yellow Spotted Trevally, scientific name Carangoides fulvogutatus, Fishing the Philippines: Fish Fishing Spots, Lures, Tactics and More, https://fishingthephilippines.com/category/trevally-talakitok/, accessed 26 March 2019.
- 39.
Spanish Mackerel, scientific name Scomberomonurs comerson, Fisheries Research and Development Corporation, Australian Fish Names Standard (2018), http://www.fishnames.com.au/, accessed 30 March 2018.
- 40.
South China Sea Arbitration, Award of 12 July 2016, 301, para. 763, https://pcacases.com/web/sendAttach/2086, accessed 26 March 2019.
- 41.
Memorial of the Philippines (30 March 2014), Annex 57, Letter from George T. Uy, Rear Admiral, Armed Forces of the Philippines, to Assistant Secretary, Office of Asia and Pacific Affairs, Department of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines (2006), vol. III, 466 (“MP”), https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
- 42.
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, signed at Washington, DC, on 3 March 1973, amended at Bonn, on 22 June 1979, amended at Gaborone, on 30 April 1983, https://www.cites.org/eng/disc/text.php, accessed 26 March 2019.
- 43.
See, for example, MP, Annex 19, Memorandum from Erlinda F. Basilio, Acting Assistant Secretary, Office of Asian and Pacific Affairs, Department of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines, to the Secretary of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines (29 March 1995), vol. III, 217, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
- 44.
MP, Annex 20, Memorandum from Lauro L. Baja, Jr., Assistant Secretary, Office of Asian and Pacific Affairs, Department of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines, to the Secretary of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines (7 April 1995), vol. III, 222, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
- 45.
Agence France Presse, “RP Minister Seeks Expulsion of Mainland Envoy,” China Post, 21 September 2002, https://chinapost.nownews.com/20020921-142615, accessed 18 February 2019; Efren Danao, “Perez Backed vs Sino Envoy,” The Philippine Star, 22 September 2002, https://www.philstar.com/nation/2002/09/22/176917/perez-backed-vs-sino-envoy, accessed 18 February 2019; Delon Porcalla and Mayen Jaymalin, “Perez Gagged on Sino Poachers,” The Philippine Star, 24 September 2002, https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2002/09/24/177232/perez-gagged-sino-poachers, accessed 18 February 2019; and Delon Porcalla, Mayen Jaymalin, “Perez, Chinese Envoy Bury Hatchet,” The Philippine Star, 26 September 2002, https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2002/09/26/177460/perez-chinese-envoy-bury-hatchet, 18 February 2019.
- 46.
MP, Annex 51, Memorandum from Josue L. Villa, Embassy of the Republic of the Philippines in Beijing, to the Secretary of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines (19 August 2002), vol. III, 408, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
- 47.
Ibid.
- 48.
MP, Annex 46, Office of Asian and Pacific Affairs, Department of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines, Apprehension of Four Chinese Fishing Vessels in the Scarborough Shoal (23 February 2001), vol. III, 371–72, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
- 49.
MP, Annex 58, Memorandum from the Secretary of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines to the President of the Republic of the Philippines (11 January 2006), vol. III, 482, 484, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
- 50.
MP, Annex 75, Memorandum from the Embassy of the Republic of the Philippines in Beijing to the Secretary of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines, No. ZPE-121-2011-S (2 December 2011), vol. IV, 123, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20IV%20%28Annexes%2061-102%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
- 51.
MP, Annex 78, Report from Commanding Officer, SARV-003, Philippine Coast Guard, to Commander, Coast Guard District, Northwestern Luzon, Philippine Coast Guard (28 April 2012), vol. IV, 147–59, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20IV%20%28Annexes%2061-102%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
- 52.
South China Sea Arbitration, Hearing on the Merits and Remaining Issues of Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Transcript, Day 2 (25 November 2015), 181 (“Hearing on the Merits”), https://pcacases.com/web/sendAttach/1548, accessed 26 March 2019.
- 53.
MP, Annex 77, Memorandum from Col. Nathaniel Y. Casem, Philippine Navy, to Chief of Staff, Armed Forces of the Philippines, No. N2E-0412-008 (11 April 2012), vol. IV, 131–46, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20IV%20%28Annexes%2061-102%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019; MP, Annex 78, 147–58; MP, Annex 80, Report from Relly B. Garcia et al., FRPLEU/QRT [Fishery Resource Protection and Law Enforcement/Quick Response Team] Officers, Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, Republic of the Philippines (2 May 2012), MP, vol. IV, 163–95, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20IV%20%28Annexes%2061-102%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019; MP, vol. I, 202–206, paras. 6.115–6.127; Award of 12 July 2016, 417–21, paras. 1046–1058.
- 54.
MP, Annex 211, Note Verbale from the Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in Manila to the Department of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines, No (12) PG-239 (25 May 2012), vol. VI, 404, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20VI%20%28Annexes%20158-221%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
- 55.
MP, vol. I, 184, para. 6.62,
- 56.
MP, Annex 17, Memorandum from the Undersecretary of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines to the Ambassador of the People’s Republic of China in Manila (6 February 1995), vol. III, 205–208, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
- 57.
MP, vol. I, 173, para. 6.44.
- 58.
Hearing on the Merits, Transcript, Day 2, 181.
- 59.
Ibid.
- 60.
MP, vol. I, 193–97, paras. 6.92–6.99.
- 61.
Award on Jurisdiction, 7, para. 107. United Nations Office of Legal Affairs, Codification Division, United Nations Diplomatic Conferences: Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, 1973–1982, 2019, http://legal.un.org/diplomaticconferences/1973_los/, accessed 4 April 2019.
- 62.
Convention, Article 287(3).
- 63.
Ibid., Article 287(5).
- 64.
The Convention was ratified by the Philippines on 8 May 1984 and by China on 7 June 1996. United Nations Office of Legal Affairs, Treaty Section, Treaty Collection, Multilateral Treaties Deposited with the Secretary-General, Chapter XXI: Law of the Sea, https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetailsIII.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXI-6&chapter=21&Temp=mtdsg3&clang=_en, accessed 4 April 2019.
- 65.
Award on Jurisdiction, 38, para. 109.
- 66.
Convention for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes, done at The Hague, 18 October 1907, Article 37, https://pca-cpa.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/6/2016/01/1907-Convention-for-the-Pacific-Settlement-of-International-Disputes.pdf, accessed 4 April 2019.
- 67.
Notification and Statement of Claim of the Republic of the Philippines, 22 January 2013, http://www.philippineembassy-usa.org/uploads/pdfs/embassy/2013/2013-0122-Notification%20and%20Statement%20of%20Claim%20on%20West%20Philippine%20Sea.pdf, accessed 3 May 2019.
- 68.
Ibid., 3, para. 7.
- 69.
Chagos Marine Protected Area Arbitration (Mauritius v. UK), Award of 18 March 2015, 89, paras. 215–216, http://www.pcacases.com/pcadocs/MU-UK%2020150318%20Award.pdf, accessed 3 May 2019.
- 70.
International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS), New Arbitrator and President Appointed in the Arbitral Proceedings Instituted by the Republic of the Philippines against the People’s Republic of China, Doc. ITLOS/Press 197 (24 June 2013), https://www.itlos.org/fileadmin/itlos/documents/press_releases_english/PR_197_E.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
- 71.
South China Sea Arbitration, Supplemental Written Submission of the Philippines (16 March 2015), Annex 467, People’s Republic of China, Position Paper of the Government of the People’s Republic of China on the Matter of Jurisdiction in the South China Sea Arbitration Initiated by the Republic of the Philippines (7 December 2014), Vol. VIII (Annexes 466–499), 19–33 (“SWSP”), https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Supplemental%20Written%20Submission%20-%20Volume%20VIII%20%28Annexes%20466-499%29.pdf, accessed 4 April 2019.
- 72.
Award of 12 July 2016, https://pcacases.com/web/sendAttach/2086, accessed 26 March 2019. The procedural history of the arbitration is summarized in the Award, 11–28, paras. 26–111. For a summary of the Award on Jurisdiction, see the Press Release issued by the PCA, Arbitration between the Republic of the Philippines and the People’s Republic of China. Tribunal Renders Award on Jurisdiction and Admissibility; Will Hold Further Hearings, 29 October 2015, http://www.pcacases.com/web/sendAttach/1503, accessed 26 March 2019. For a summary of the Award of 12 July 2016, see the Press Release issued by the PCA, The South China Sea Arbitration (The Republic of the Philippines v. the People’s Republic of China. The Tribunal Renders Its Award, 12 July 2016, https://pcacases.com/web/endAttach/1801, 26 March 2019. The documents relating to the case may be found on the PCA Web site, https://pca-cpa.org/en/cases/7/, accessed 26 March 2019.
- 73.
Award on Jurisdiction, 320, para. 819.
- 74.
Supplemental Documents of the Philippines (19 November 2015), Annex 608, Department of Foreign Affairs—Republic of the Philippines. Statement on China’s Reclamation Activities and their Impact on the Region’s Marine Environment (13 April 2015), vol. I, 7–9 (“SDP”), https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Supplemental%20Documents%20-%20Volume%20I%20%28Annexes%20607-667%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
- 75.
Award of 12 July 2016, 355–56, 358, paras. 891, 894, 901.
- 76.
Ibid., 41–42, para. 112.
- 77.
According to Submission No. 10 , “China has unlawfully prevented Philippine fishermen from pursuing their livelihoods by interfering with traditional fishing activities at Scarborough Shoal.” According to Submission No. 13 , “China has breached its obligations under the Convention by operating its law enforcement vessels in a dangerous manner causing serious risk of collision to Philippine vessels navigating in the vicinity of Scarborough Shoal.” Under Submission No. 14(d) the Philippines claimed that since the commencement of [the] arbitration…China has unlawfully aggravated and extended the dispute by, among other things (d) conducting dredging, artificial island-building and construction activities at Mischief Reef, Cuarteron Reef, Fiery Cross Reef, Gaven Reef, Johnson Reef, Hughes Reef and Subi Reef.” For the Tribunal’s decisions concerning Submissions No. 10, 13, and 14(d), see Award on Jurisdiction, 145, paras. 407 and 410, and 146–147, para. 410; Award of 12 July 2016, 304–318, paras. 772–814; 421–35, paras. 1059–1109; and 456–464, paras. 1163–1181.
- 78.
South China Sea Arbitration, Rules of Procedure, 27 August 2013, Article 25(1), 12, https://pcacases.com/web/sendAttach/233, accessed 7 April 2019.
- 79.
The text of the Tribunal’s Request is not available. The reader can only deduce its contents by reading the Philippine submissions. SWSP, 55–58, paras. 11.1–11.13. Convention on Biological Diversity, signed at Rio de Janeiro on 5 June 1992, entered into force on 29 December 1993, https://www.cbd.int/doc/legal/cbd-en.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.
- 80.
Annex VII, Article 9; Rules of Procedure, Article 25(1).
- 81.
The text of the Tribunal’s list of issues is not available. The reader can only deduce its contents by reading the transcripts of the Hearing itself. South China Sea Arbitration, Hearing on Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Transcript, Day 2 (8 July 2015), 74–86, https://pcacases.com/web/sendAttach/1400, accessed 7 April 2019.
- 82.
The text of the Tribunal’s questions is not available. The reader can only deduce its contents by reading the transcripts of the Hearing itself. South China Sea Arbitration, Hearing on Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Transcript, Day 3 (13 July 2015), 42 (“Hearing on Jurisdiction”), https://pcacases.com/web/sendAttach/1401, accessed 7 April 2019.
- 83.
South China Sea Arbitration, Hearing on the Merits and Remaining Issues of Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Transcript, Day 3 (26 November 2015), 47–54, https://pcacases.com/web/sendAttach/1549, accessed 26 March 2019. MP, Annex 240, Eastern South China Sea Environmental Disturbances and Irresponsible Fishing Practices and their Effects on Coral Reefs and Fisheries (22 March 2014), by Kent E. Carpenter, Ph.D., vol. VII, 389–437, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20VII%20%28Annexes%20222-255%29.pdf, accessed 7 April 2019; SDP, Annex 699, Environmental Consequences of Land Reclamation Activities on Various Reefs in the South China Sea (14 November 2015), by K. E. Carpenter & L. M. Chou, vol, II, 235–92, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Supplemental%20Documents%20-%20Volume%20II%20%28Annexes%20608-709%29.pdf, accessed 7 April 2019.
- 84.
The text of the Tribunal’s questions is not available. The reader can only deduce its contents by reading the transcripts of the Hearing itself. Hearing on the Merits, Transcript, Day 4 (30 November 2015), 138–162, https://pcacases.com/web/sendAttach/1550, accessed 7 April 2019.
- 85.
The text of the Tribunal’s questions is not available. The reader can only deduce its contents by reading the transcripts of the Hearing itself. Ibid., 166–87.
- 86.
Ibid., 181–82. The Philippines’ Annexes cited during Merits Hearing, Annex 821, China State Oceanic Administration, “Construction Work at Nansha Reefs Will Not Harm Oceanic Ecosystems” (18 June 2015), http://www.soa.gov.cn/xw/hyyw_90/201506/t20150618_38598.html, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Annexes%20cited%20during%20Merits%20Hearing%20%28Annexes%20820-859%29.pdf, accessed 7 April 2019.
- 87.
The list of documents may be found in South China Sea Arbitration, The Philippines’ Written Responses (11 March 2016), https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Written%20Responses%20%2811%20March%202016%29%20%28Annexes%20864-892%29.pdf, accessed 7 April 2016.
- 88.
South China Sea Arbitration, Responses of the Philippines to the Tribunal’s 4 February 2016 Request for Comments (11 March 2016), https://pcacases.com/web/sendAttach/1849, accessed 7 April 2019.
- 89.
The Philippines Annexes Cited During the Merits Hearing, Annex 850.
- 90.
South China Sea Arbitration, The Philippines’ Response to Tribunal Enquiry on Reef Damage (26 April 2016) (with Prof. McManus Revised Report and Third Carpenter Report), https://pcacases.com/web/sendAttach/1917, accessed 7 April 2019.
- 91.
Award of 12 July 2016, 29, 31, 32, paras. 84, 89, 90, 93; Ferse Report.
- 92.
Award of 12 July 2016, 364, para. 915.
- 93.
Ibid., 364, para. 915; 365, paras. 917–920; 369, para. 924.
- 94.
Chinese Society of International Law (CSIL), “The South China Sea Arbitration Awards: A Critical Study,” Chinese Journal of International Law 17 (2018): 207–748. For initial responses to the Critical Study, see Douglas Guilfoyle, “A New Twist in the South China Sea Arbitration: The Chinese Society of International Law’s Critical Study,” ejil.talk, 25 May 2018, ejiltalk.org/a-new-twist-in-the-south-china-sea-arbitration-the-chinese-society-of-international-laws-critical-study/, accessed 7 February 2019 and Douglas Guilfoyle, “Taking the Party Line on the South China Sea Arbitration,” ejil.talk, 28 May 2018, ejiltalk.org/taking-the-party-line-on-the-south-china-sea-arbitration/, accessed 7 February 2019.
- 95.
Hearing on the Merits, Transcript, Day 3, 10; Paul Reichler, counsel for the Philippines, quoted in Stuart Leavenworth, “In South China Sea Case, Ruling on Environment Hailed as Precedent,” Christian Science Monitor, 20 July 2016, http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Asia-Pacific/2016/0720/In-South-China-Sea-case-ruling-on-environment-hailed-as-precedent, accessed 26 March 2019.
- 96.
Patricia Birnie, Alan Boyle and Catherine Redgewell, International Law and the Environment (3rd ed.) (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 226. Boyle was one of the counsels for the Philippines in the arbitration.
- 97.
Since 2016, commentaries on the Tribunal’s decisions relating to Philippine Submissions No. 11 and 12(b) have been published by distinguished scholars. See Chie Kojima, “South China Sea Arbitration and the Protection of the Marine Environment: Evolution of UNCLOS Part XII Through Interpretation and the Duty to Cooperate,” Asian Yearbook of International Law 21 (2015): 166–80; Makane Moïse Mbengue, “The South China Sea Arbitration. Innovation in Marine Environmental Fact-finding and Due Diligence Obligations,” ASIL Unbound (12 December 2016): 285–89; Nilufer Oral, “The South China Sea Arbitral Award, Part XII of UNCLOS and the Protection and Preservation of the Marine Environment,” in S. Jayakumar et al. (eds.), The South China Sea Arbitration: The Legal Dimension (Cheltenham, Gloucestershire: Edward Elgar, 2018), 223–46; Ilias Plakokefalos, “Environmental Law Aspects of the South China Sea Arbitration Award,” Symposium on the South China Sea Award, Netherlands Institute for the Law of the Sea (NILOS), Utrecht Centre for Oceans Water and Sustainability Law, School of Law Utrecht University, 7 December 2016, https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2880624, accessed 3 May 2019; Tim Stephens, “The Collateral Damage from China’s ‘Great Wall of Sand’: The Environmental Dimensions of the South China Sea Case,” Australian Yearbook of International Law 24 (2017): 41–56; and Yoshifumi Tanaka, “The South China Sea Arbitration: Environmental Obligations under the Law of the Sea Convention,” Review of European, Comparative and International Environmental Law 27 (2018): 90–96. Commentaries in French and Spanish that analyze the Award of 12 July 2016 as a whole devote little attention to the environmental issues discussed in the Award. See Romain Le Bœuf, “Différend en Mer de Chine méridionale. Sentence arbitrale du 12 juillet 2016 [The South China Sea Dispute. Arbitral Award of 12 July 2016],” Annuaire Français de Droit International [French Yearbook of International Law] 52 (2016): 178; Jean-Paul Pancracio, “La sentence arbitrale sur la mer de Chine méridionale du 12 juillet 2016 [The South China Sea Arbitral Award of 12 July 2016],” Annuaire Français de Relations Internationales [French Yearbook of International Relations] 18 (2017): 649, http://www.afri-ct.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/Article-Pancracio.pdf, accessed 5 February 2019; and Elena Pineros Polo, “Arbitraje del mar del sur de China. la estrategia procesal de la República Popular de China [The South China Sea Arbitration. The Procedural Strategy of the People’s Republic of China],” Revista Electrónica de Estudios Internacionales [Electronic Journal of International Studies] 35 (2018): 20, www.reei.org/index.php/revista/…/09_Nota_PINEROS_Elena.pdf, accessed 9 February 2019.
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Robles Jr., A. (2020). Introduction. In: Endangered Species and Fragile Ecosystems in the South China Sea. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9813-1_1
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