Keywords

1 Introduction

Hokkaido is the cornerstone of Japan’s fishing industry. In 2014, production in Hokkaido’s marine fishing and aquaculture industries, in terms of both quantity and value, was the highest of any of the nation’s prefectures (Hokkaido, 2016). In addition to being one of Hokkaido’s key industries, the fishing industry also provides the economic foundation for communities in the prefecture’s coastal areas and on its offshore islands. However, like other areas of Japan, Hokkaido faces two problems: a decline in overall production and in catches of key species (walleye pollock, Pacific saury, chum salmon, etc.), and a decline in the number of fishing industry workers and general aging of the population (Hokkaido, 2016) . These problems represent a threat to the sustainability of Hokkaido’s fishing industry and of the prefecture’s regional communities.

Taking the cases of Hokkaido’s Rishiri and Rebun Islands as examples, this chapter looks at the problem of declining catches from the legislative and policy perspective. The communities of both islands have historically been extremely reliant on the fishing industry, and the issues of declining catches and aging populations are making themselves felt. Against this background, the town communities on the islands have mounted independent initiatives in relation to fisheries resources, making them ideal to consider as case studies. The labor force and population issues affecting both islands should also be considered, but limitations of space prevent it on this occasion.

2 The Fishing Industries of Rishiri and Rebun Islands

Rishiri and Rebun Islands are located in the Sea of Japan northwest of Hokkaido . The towns of Rishirifuji and Rishiri are located on Rishiri Island, and the town of Rebun is located on Rebun Island (Map 6.1).

Map 6.1
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Location of Rishiri and Rebun Islands. Note: This map was prepared by the author based on Google Maps

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The ocean surrounding Rishiri and Rebun Islands offers particularly abundant fishing grounds. The islands lie close to the La Perouse Strait (the Strait of Soya), and are affected by both the intermingling of the cold waters of the Liman Current and the warm waters of the Tsushima Current and drift ice from the Sea of Okhotsk. The waters around the islands were previously rich in herring, and fishing remains the main industry in the islands’ towns. This is followed by tourism , but the number of tourists visiting the islands has halved in the past 12 years. Depopulation is severe on the islands, with the populations having declined dramatically since 1955, when there was a poor herring catch. More than 30% of the population of the islands is aged over 65.

With the exception of processing of the catch by the fisheries cooperative association in Funadomari, in Rebun Town, the fishing industry of both islands has traditionally centered on marine fishing. Three types of fishing are practiced on the islands: in-shore harvesting of sea urchin, abalone and so forth; offshore fishing; and marine aquaculture. Almost all fisheries operators on the islands are engaged in in-shore harvesting. There is also considerable offshore fishing activity on Rebun Island.

The main species taken in in-shore harvesting operations are Ezo-bafun uni (Strongylocentrotus intermedius, a species of sea urchin), Kita-murasaki uni (Strongylocentrotus nudus, a species of sea urchin), wild kombu, sea cucumber, abalone, and wakame. The produce is harvested under a Class 1 common fishery right by members of the fisheries cooperative associations, under the management of the associations. A wide variety of fish and shellfish are caught in offshore fishing operations. Okhotsk atka mackerel, octopus, and sea cucumbers are caught by fishermen in all three towns. Fishermen in Rishirifuji also catch flounder, sand lances, horsehair crabs and red king crabs, and salmon. Fisheries operators in Rebun also catch cod and Japanese sand lances. A variety of legal foundations regulate the species that are fished (and the fishing methods employed). Table 6.1 shows the respective legal foundations that govern the species caught and the fishing methods employed. Cultivated kombu is the product harvested by marine aquaculture operations. This is harvested under a special demarcated fishery right under the management of the fisheries cooperative associations. Figure 6.1 shows the volume and value of production for the main species caught or harvested.

Fig. 6.1
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Production for the main species harvested in 2015 at Rishirifuji-cho, Rishiri-cho, and Rebun-cho. (a) The volume of production. (b) The value of production. * Strongylocentrotus intermedius, a species of sea urchin, locally called “Uni.” ** Strongylocentrotus nudus, a species of sea urchin, locally called “Nona.” Source: These figures were prepared by the author based on data in the below referenced materials: Fisheries Ports Administrator, Rishirifuji Town (2016) “Rishirifuji Fisheries, 2016 Edition” (in Japanese); Community Development Department, Rishiri Town (2016) “Documents Relating to Status of Fisheries Production, 2015” (in Japanese); and Rebun Town (2016) “Trends in Fishery Yields, by Species” (in Japanese)

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Fig. 6.2
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Trend in the volume of production for Okhotsk atka mackerel, Pacific cod, and Ezo-bafun uni* over the last ten years at Rishirifuji-cho, Rishiri-cho, and Rebun-cho. * Strongylocentrotus intermedius, a species of sea urchin. Source: These figures were prepared by the author based on data in the below referenced materials: Fisheries Ports Administrator, Rishirifuji Town (2016) “Rishirifuji Fisheries, 2016 Edition” (in Japanese); Community Development Department, Rishiri Town (2016) “Documents Relating to Status of Fisheries Production, 2015” (in Japanese); and Rebun Town (2016) “Trends in Fishery Yields, by Species” (in Japanese)

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In recent years, catches of the main species Ezo-bafun uni (in in-shore harvesting operations) and Okhotsk atka mackerel and cod (in offshore fishing operations) have been declining (Fig. 6.2). While the reasons for this are not clear, factors including increased water temperature, change in currents, fishing pressure, and a decline in the number of fisheries workers may be involved.

Three fisheries cooperative associations are located on the islands: The Rishiri Fisheries Cooperative Association (formed as an amalgamation of four fisheries cooperative associations (Oshidomari, Oniwaki, Kutsugata, and Senhoshi) in 2008) is based on Rishiri Island, and the Kafuka and Funadomari Fisheries Cooperatives are based on Rebun Island. As of January 2016, the Rishiri Fisheries Cooperative Association had 315 members, the Kafuka Fisheries Cooperative Association had 150 members, and the Funadomari Fisheries Cooperative Association had 210 members. Membership numbers for each cooperative association are in ongoing decline. The highest proportion of cooperative members are in their forties and fifties, and the average age of members is around 65. The cooperative associations are of differing economic scale. According to 2013 data, both amount of sales and balance of savings per member are highest for the Funadomari Fisheries Cooperative Association, with figures twice those for the Rishiri Fisheries Cooperative Association (Hokkaido Government Soya General Subprefectural Bureau, 2015).

3 Okhotsk Atka Mackerel and Pacific Cod: Diminishing Catches and Concerns over Depletion of Resources

Catches of Okhotsk atka mackerel and Pacific cod, two of the main species taken by the offshore fishing industry of the islands, have been declining for the past several years (Fig. 6.2). In addition, numbers of northern species of mackerel and cod are low in the waters around both islands, and resources are in decline (Hokkaido, 2016; Hokkaido Government Fisheries Management Section, 2015). As indicated above, a number of causes of this phenomenon can be considered. Nevertheless, recognizing that numbers are low and resources are declining, appropriate resource management based on scientific studies will be essential to maintaining the catch into the future. In part because of the effect of declining production in increasing the unit price of the catch, the total value of production for the islands in the most recent year was higher than the previous year, but like Pacific herring and walleye pollock previously, a drastic decline in resources may make it difficult to maintain a catch at all, leaving the local fishing industry with nothing.

Stocks of northern species of mackerel are particularly low, and for a three-year period from 2012, fisheries operators engaged in voluntary resource management efforts in relation to the fish which saw them reducing their catch volume or their fishing effort by 30%. However, this did not lead to a recovery of mackerel stocks, and the measures were therefore continued for another three years (Hokkaido, 2016). There is no legal restriction on the size of the mackerel catch, and, other than the temporary measures discussed above, the only resource management measures being applied are voluntary restrictions on catch size and fishing period put into effect by each fisheries cooperative association.

In addition, no total allowable catch (TAC) is set for either mackerel or cod under the Act on Preservation and Control of Living Marine Resources. The necessity of adding both species to the list of resources subject to total allowable catch restrictions has been examined at the government level (Expert Panel on the TAC System, Etc., Apr.–Dec., 2008). Ultimately, the species were not added to the list due to a lack of scientific evidence urging the application of TAC restrictions, and a failure to demonstrate that stocks were diminishing (Expert Panel on the TAC System, Etc., 2008). However, as indicated above, stocks of northern species of mackerel and cod did in fact diminish later, and the above-mentioned voluntary resource management measures failed to bear fruit. Concerns have also been raised regarding high-volume trawl net fishing of mackerel by Wakkanai offshore trawling operators in the waters off the islands. To help ensure that there is no repetition of the mistakes made in the cases of Pacific herring and walleye pollock in the waters of the Sea of Japan off Hokkaido , it will be necessary to vigorously promote efforts to develop scientific methods of estimating the volume of fisheries resources and making future projections (both of which are currently difficult), and re-examine the feasibility of regulating catch sizes via effective standards based on TAC restrictions. While accumulating scientific evidence, the Expert Panel on the TAC System, Etc. should conduct ongoing studies concerning the application of TAC restrictions to more species, including the species discussed above, based on the specific characteristics of the resources in question.

4 Ezo-bafun Uni: Diminishing Catches and Efforts to Cultivate the Species and Restock Supplies

Catches of Ezo-bafun uni have recently displayed a declining tendency (Fig. 6.2). No scientific data concerning the current status of resources is available, and the cause of their decline is also unclear. Local fisheries operators have indicated that Kita-murasaki uni, a hardier species inhabiting comparatively deep waters, have begun breeding in the shallows that are the habitat of the Ezo-bafun uni, and the latter are disappearing. It has also been suggested that the isolation of the habitats of the two species has been disrupted by factors including increased water temperature and the artificial transplantation of the Kita-murasaki uni to the shallows in order to boost their numbers. Whatever the cause, there is concern over the status of sea urchin resources. It would therefore be desirable to see ongoing surveys, including visual surveys, of the volume of sea urchin resources, and efforts to understand sea urchin ecology.

The catch size of sea urchins is regulated by the Regulations for the Management of Hokkaido’s Fisheries (Article 35), and in addition the fisheries operators of both islands have voluntarily established even more rigorous restrictions on catch size. In addition, while it is not based on scientific data, the total sea urchin catch for each fisheries cooperative association is recorded in their annual business plans. However, these figures are indicated as being no more than yardsticks.

For many years the Rishiri Town budget (approximately 36 million yen per year) has made funds available for the cultivation of Ezo-bafun uni and the restocking of supplies in the waters around the island. Over the course of 21 years, the Rishiri Island Sea Urchin Seed Production Center has produced approximately five million sea urchin seeds per year. Six hundred thousand of these seeds are sold to other organizations (the Rishiri Fisheries Cooperative Association Oshidomari Center and the Wakkanai Fisheries Cooperative Association), and the remainder of the cultivated juvenile sea urchins are released in the waters off the town. Some question the effectiveness of this sea urchin cultivation project in the absence of clear limits on the urchin catch volume. However, a survey conducted in 2008 found that approximately 10% of Ezo-bafun uni caught by local fisheries operators had developed from the juveniles released by this project, indicating that outcomes of a specific level are being achieved. In accordance with the government’s Basic Principles for Japanese Marine Stock Enhancement, Hokkaido is currently formulating and implementing the 7th Basic Aquaculture Plan (2015–2019), based on Article 6 of the Basic Principles, “Ordinances for the Rehabilitation of Hokkaido’s Fishing Industry and Fishing Villages.” In addition to establishing the species subject to aquaculture efforts, including Ezo-bafun uni, and setting numerical targets for the cultivation of seeds and the release of juveniles, this plan seeks to promote aquaculture suited to the characteristics of the oceans around Hokkaido (the Sea of Japan, the Pacific, and the Sea of Okhotsk) (Hokkaido, 2016). The aquaculture project being conducted in Rishiri Town is one of the main examples of these initiatives. The town is bearing a considerable financial burden, but the initiative is one which will attract attention as a measure to support the future of Rishiri Island’s fishing industry.

5 Sea Cucumber: Realization of a Stable Production Volume and Attempts to Expand Production through Seed Cultivation and Release of Juveniles

About ten years ago, the volume of production of sea cucumbers began to increase on both Rishiri and Rebun Islands, and has since become comparatively stable (Fig. 6.2). The majority of these sea cucumbers are exported to China. Hokkaido sea cucumbers are highly prized as a luxury ingredient in Chinese dishes. Demand has increased with the growth of the Chinese economy, and the price of sea cucumbers has risen significantly. Against this background, in Rishiri Town the Rishiri Island Sea Urchin Seed Production Center has commenced a sea cucumber seed cultivation and juvenile release project, and is conducting tests in the island’s bays towards increasing the stock of sea cucumbers. In Rishirifuji Town the similar initiative is being conducted in cooperation with the Fisheries Guidance Office. Tests of the cultivation of sea cucumber seeds have also recently been commenced in Rebun Town. These initiatives will support the advancement of the Hokkaido aquaculture industry discussed above. Using its Fisheries Experimental Stations, Hokkaido is currently working to identify the effects of release of the cultivated resources, develop nutritional media to assist in the cultivation of the seeds, and develop low-cost and high-efficiency cultivation techniques (Hokkaido, 2016).

Like for sea urchins, the size of the harvest and the period of harvesting sea cucumbers are regulated by the Regulations for the Management of Hokkaido’s Fisheries and the fisheries cooperative associations. However, there are no restrictions on the size of the sea cucumber harvest. Sea cucumber aquaculture is progressing in the islands, but unlike in the case of sea urchins, there does not seem to be concern over unrestricted “Olympic-style” harvesting from the perspective of sustainability. There is certainly room for examination of the pros and cons of introducing some form of control over the volume of the harvest in parallel with the advancement of the aquaculture industry.

6 Conclusion

The fisheries industries of Rishiri and Rebun Islands originated with the modern fishing of Pacific herring. The decline in the herring catch prompted fisheries operators to turn to other species, including Okhotsk atka mackerel and Pacific cod, and these species have been fished up to the present day. Recently, however, the production volumes of these main species, in addition to that of Ezo-bafun uni, have been in decline. It is not certain that it will be possible to shift the focus to different species in the future, as it was in the past. Doubts must exist in this respect, given the limited range of species available.

The unit price of the catch will increase if production volumes decline, but the resulting economic benefits to fisheries operators and fisheries cooperative associations in the short term will dampen the incentive to engage in resource management from medium- to long-term perspectives. An increase in the unit price of the catch will also threaten marine product processing businesses, and this will in turn render the goal of transforming the fishing industry into a “sextiary” industry, being pursued by the government in order to halt the industry’s decline, a more distant one.Footnote 1 The possibility that the decline in fisheries resources will continue, and that the industry will face a crisis in the medium- to long-term, cannot be denied.

Table 6.1 Legal foundations regulating main species caught or harvested on Rishiri and Rebun Islands
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It also cannot be denied that with the aging of the fishing population, there is a lack of momentum among the regional community towards the transformation of the fishing industry into one that manages resources with a view to the long-term future. If there were a large number of young fisheries workers, the realization of a fishing industry that would be sustainable far into the future would be a matter of vital importance to the regional community; with few young workers taking up places in the industry, however, the sense of urgency in relation to the future becomes comparatively less strong. In this sense, the realization of appropriate resource management is closely related to the securing and development of young fisheries workers, and the two problems discussed at the outset of this chapter are two sides of the same coin. Given this, the enhancement of fisheries resource management beyond the existing voluntary measures based on objective and scientific data and the realization of a fishing industry that is sustainable from medium- to long-term perspectives would have the potential to work positively in increasing the numbers of young fisheries workers. For regional communities that depend on the fishing industry, this may therefore represent a means of halting depopulation and promoting sustainable development.

The cases of Rishiri Island and Rebun Island give us much to consider. In order to realize sustainable fisheries and regional communities, it will be essential to take a broader perspective in our consideration of legislation and the formulation of policy related to the management of resources, while ensuring that we remain grounded in the actual experiences of the communities themselves.