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International Economic Relations and Armed Conflict

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The 1998–2000 Eritrea-Ethiopia War and Its Aftermath in International Legal Perspective

Abstract

The law of international armed conflict provides for a variety of principles and rules aimed at the protection of economic interests of both the belligerent States and their respective nationals, including entities. This chapter gives an assessment of the jurisprudence of the Eritrea-Ethiopia Claims Commission (EECC) relevant to international economic relations during the Eritrean-Ethiopian armed conflict with a view to testing the effectiveness of the applicable law. While many of the facts at issue before the EECC were disputed or not absolutely verifiable, the Commission has contributed to some important clarifications. Furthermore, based on the law of armed conflict as generally recognised by the international community, it has also contributed to a clarification of the applicable law and, thus, to its consolidation especially regarding the effects of armed conflict on treaties, the complementarity between international humanitarian law and human rights law during armed conflicts and the protection of private property rights of enemy nationals in enemy territory. The law of neutrality played instead a minor role during the conflict because there had been no extensive interference by neither belligerent with third States, their nationals, or their aviation and navigation.

The author is Professor of Public Law at the University Viadrina, Frankfurt/Oder.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Agreement between the Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia and the Government of the State of Eritrea, done at Algiers, 12 December 2000. The text is reproduced in Appendix A to this volume. For an overall assessment of the agreement, see Greppi and Poli, Chap. 4.

  2. 2.

    Ibid., Article 5, para 1.

  3. 3.

    For an overview, see Heintschel von Heinegg 2003.

  4. 4.

    For these findings, see EECC, Partial Award: Loss of Property in Ethiopia, Eritrea’s Claim 24, 19 December 2005, PCA Case No. 2001-02, paras 14 and 26.

  5. 5.

    Loss of Property in Ethiopia 2005 (above n 4) para 22.

  6. 6.

    Loss of Property in Ethiopia 2005 (above n 4) para 27.

  7. 7.

    See EECC, Partial Award: Civilians Claims, Eritrea’s Claims 15, 16, 23 and 27–32, 17 December 2004, PCA Case No. 2001-02, para 123.

  8. 8.

    Civilians Claims, Eritrea 2004 (above n 7) para 129.

  9. 9.

    See EECC, Partial Award: Civilians Claims, Ethiopia’s Claim 5, 17 December 2004, PCA Case No. 2001-02, para 133.

  10. 10.

    Civilians Claims, Ethiopia 2004 (above n 9) para 135: ‘The record contains many accounts of forcible evictions from homes that were thereafter sealed or looted, blocked bank accounts, forced closure of businesses followed by confiscation, and outright seizure of personal property by the police.’

  11. 11.

    See EECC, Partial Award: Economic Loss throughout Ethiopia, Ethiopia’s Claim 7, 19 December 2005, PCA Case No. 2001-02, para 10.

  12. 12.

    Economic Loss throughout Ethiopia 2005 (above n 11) para 13.

  13. 13.

    See EECC, Final Award: Ports, Ethiopia’s Claim 6, 19 December 2005, PCA Case No. 2001-02, para 12.

  14. 14.

    Ports, Ethiopia 2005 (above n 13) para 19.

  15. 15.

    Ports, Ethiopia 2005 (above n 13) para 24.

  16. 16.

    Ports, Ethiopia 2005 (above n 13) para 22.

  17. 17.

    See Oppenheim 1963, p. 302.

  18. 18.

    Oppenheim 1963, p. 303.

  19. 19.

    See above n 18. See also Brownlie 2003, p. 592; Berber 1969, p. 95; Delbrück 2000, p. 1369 ff.

  20. 20.

    These are the following bilateral treaties concluded on 27 September 1993: Transit and Port Services Agreement between the Transitional Government of Ethiopia and the Government of the State of Eritrea; Protocol Agreement on Transport and Communications between the Transitional Government of Ethiopia and the Government of the State of Eritrea; Air Services Agreement between the Transitional Government of Ethiopia and the Government of the State of Eritrea; Trade Agreement between the Transitional Government of Ethiopia and the Government of the State of Eritrea, and Protocol on Trade in Goods and Services for the Year 1993/94; Commercial Road Transport Services Agreement between the Transitional Government of Ethiopia and the Government of the State of Eritrea.

  21. 21.

    Economic Loss throughout Ethiopia 2005 (above n 11) para 18.

  22. 22.

    Oppenheim 1963, p. 304 ff; Berber 1969, p. 94; Brownlie 2003, p. 592.

  23. 23.

    For a comprehensive analysis, see Provost 2002 and Schäfer 2006. For a compilation of relevant documents and judgments, see Martin et al. 2006.

  24. 24.

    As regards the exercise of jurisdiction, see ECtHR, Loizidou v. Turkey, Application No. 15318/89, Judgments, 23 March 1995 (Preliminary Objections) and 18 December 1996 (Merits); Banković et al. v. Belgium et al., Application No. 52207/99, Judgment, 12 December 2001. See also Inter-American Commission of Human Rights, Coard and Others v. United States of America, Case 10.951, 29 September 1999, reprinted in: ILR 123:157.

  25. 25.

    Civilians Claims, Eritrea 2004 (above n 7) para 5.

  26. 26.

    Ports, Ethiopia 2005 (above n 13) para 20.

  27. 27.

    For the British and US position, see Oppenheim 1963, p. 318 ff.

  28. 28.

    Oppenheim 1963, p. 318 ff. See also Berber 1969, p. 204 ff; Rousseau 1983, p. 49 ff.

  29. 29.

    Berber 1969, pp. 92, 197 ff.

  30. 30.

    Ports, Ethiopia 2005 (above n 13) para 19.

  31. 31.

    See the references above n 19.

  32. 32.

    See San Remo Manual on International Law Applicable to Armed Conflicts at Sea, printed in Roberts and Guelff 2000, p. 573 ff. See also the Explanations in Doswald-Beck 1995. According to para 10(a) of the San Remo Manual, the area of naval warfare comprises ‘the territorial sea and internal waters, the land territories, the exclusive economic zone and continental shelf and, where applicable, the archipelagic waters, of belligerent States’. According to para 26 of the San Remo Manual, international straits and archipelagic sea lanes of the belligerents must remain open to neutral vessels and aircraft only.

  33. 33.

    San Remo Manual (above n 32) paras 135 and 136.

  34. 34.

    San Remo Manual (above n 32) paras 141 and 142. Article 52 of the 1923 Hague Draft Rules of Aerial Warfare, printed in: Roberts and Guelff 2000, p. 139 ff.

  35. 35.

    Berber 1969, p. 197 ff.

  36. 36.

    Above n 32 and accompanying text.

  37. 37.

    Above n 33 and accompanying text.

  38. 38.

    Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War of 12 August 1949.

  39. 39.

    Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), of 8 June 1977.

  40. 40.

    Article 70 para 1 Protocol I.

  41. 41.

    See also San Remo Manual (above n 32) para 103.

  42. 42.

    Above n 16 and accompanying text.

  43. 43.

    Ports, Ethiopia 2005 (above n 13) para 23.

  44. 44.

    Note that objects under the exclusive control or use by the enemy State have always been considered of enemy character even if, under the applicable civil law, the owners are private persons, whether of enemy or of neutral nationality.

  45. 45.

    See Berber 1969, p. 200 ff; Rousseau 1983, p. 40.

  46. 46.

    Berber 1969, p. 201; Rousseau 1983, p. 40 ff.

  47. 47.

    Ports, Ethiopia 2005 (above n 13) para 24.

  48. 48.

    Oppenheim 1963, p. 327.

  49. 49.

    Article 23 (g) of the 1907 Hague Regulations.

  50. 50.

    Oppenheim 1963, p. 327.

  51. 51.

    Ibid.

  52. 52.

    See Articles 27 and 41 Geneva Convention IV.

  53. 53.

    See, inter alia, Brownlie 2003, p. 508 ff.

  54. 54.

    Civilians Claims, Eritrea 2004 (above n 7) para 135 ff.

  55. 55.

    Civilians Claims, Eritrea 2004 (above n 7) para 136.

  56. 56.

    Civilians Claims, Eritrea 2004 (above n 7) para 140.

  57. 57.

    Oppenheim 1963, p. 309 ff.

  58. 58.

    Civilians Claims, Eritrea 2004 (above n 7) para 144.

  59. 59.

    Civilians Claims, Ethiopia 2004 (above n 9) para 133.

  60. 60.

    Civilians Claims, Ethiopia 2004 (above n 9) para 124.

  61. 61.

    Civilians Claims, Ethiopia 2004 (above n 9) para 133.

  62. 62.

    Civilians Claims, Eritrea 2004 (above n 7) para 130 ff.

  63. 63.

    Civilians Claims, Eritrea 2004 (above n 7) para 133.

  64. 64.

    Oppenheim 1963, p. 314.

  65. 65.

    Ibid., p. 327 ff.

  66. 66.

    For State practice, see Rousseau 1983, p. 53 ff; Oppenheim 1963, p. 327 ff.

  67. 67.

    Ports, Ethiopia 2005 (above n 13) para 25. See also Civilians Claims, Eritrea 2004 (above n 7) para 125 ff.

  68. 68.

    McNair and Watts 1966, p. 332; see further Oppenheim 1963, p. 327 ff.

  69. 69.

    See Oppenheim 1963, p. 327, referring to the British Trading with the Enemy (Amendment) Act, 1914.

  70. 70.

    Ports, Ethiopia 2005 (above n 13) para 32.

  71. 71.

    For an overview, see Heintschel von Heinegg 1991 and Heintschel von Heinegg 1992. With regard to prize measures in aerial warfare, see the 1923 Hague Draft Rules of Aerial Warfare (above n 34) Article 49 ff.

  72. 72.

    San Remo Manual (above n 32) paras 135 ff.

  73. 73.

    See, inter alia, Tucker 1957, pp. 38 and 43 ff.

  74. 74.

    See above n 32 and accompanying text.

  75. 75.

    San Remo Manual (above n 32) paras 135, 141; 1923 Hague Draft Rules (above n 34) Article 52.

  76. 76.

    See above n 75.

  77. 77.

    In all cases of capture as prize, the maxim ‘toute prise doit être jugée’ applies. See 1923 Hague Draft Rules (above n 34) Article 55; San Remo Manual (above n 32) paras 138, 144. For the historical development of the maxim, see Verzijl et al. 1992, pp 576 and 612.

  78. 78.

    1923 Hague Draft Rules (above n 34) Article 59; San Remo Manual (above n 32) paras 135, 141.

  79. 79.

    Convention (VI) Relating to the Status of Enemy Merchant Ships at the Outbreak of Hostilities, 18 October 1907, printed in: AJIL 2(Supplement):128 ff.

  80. 80.

    Convention (VI) (above n 79) Article 1.

  81. 81.

    Convention (VI) (above n 79) Article 3.

  82. 82.

    San Remo Manual (above n 32) and accompanying text.

  83. 83.

    For the controversy on that issue, see Gioia 2006, p. 214 ff, and Heintschel von Heinegg 2007, p. 544 ff.

  84. 84.

    Gioia 2006, p 193 ff; Heintschel von Heinegg 2007, p. 565 ff.

  85. 85.

    San Remo Manual (above n 32) paras 118 ff, 125 ff; 1923 Hague Draft Rules (above n 34) Article 49 ff.

  86. 86.

    San Remo Manual (above n 32) paras 146 ff, 153 ff; 1923 Hague Draft Rules (above n 34) Article 53 ff. Note that certain activities may render neutral merchant vessels and neutral civil aircraft legitimate military objectives. If that is the case the vehicles as well as their cargoes may be captured. In principle, the ownership passes to the captor immediately, without the necessity of a prize court decision to that effect.

  87. 87.

    Gioia 2006, p. 195 ff.

  88. 88.

    Heintschel von Heinegg 2007, p. 561.

  89. 89.

    See, inter alia, Tucker 1957, p. 352; Castrén 1954, p. 583 ff.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Law, University Viadrina, August-Bebel-Straße 12 15234, Frankfurt (Oder), Germany

    Wolff Heintschel von Heinegg

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  1. Wolff Heintschel von Heinegg
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  1. Istituto DIRPOLIS, Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna, Pisa, Italy

    Andrea de Guttry

  2. Faculté Libre de Droit, Université Catholique de Lille, Lille, France

    Harry H. G. Post

  3. DILHPS, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy

    Gabriella Venturini

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Heintschel von Heinegg, W. (2021). International Economic Relations and Armed Conflict. In: de Guttry, A., Post, H.H.G., Venturini, G. (eds) The 1998–2000 Eritrea-Ethiopia War and Its Aftermath in International Legal Perspective. T.M.C. Asser Press, The Hague. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-439-6_20

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