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The EU’s Policy Towards Combatting Trafficking in Human Beings in Its Relations with the Eastern Neighbourhood: A Human Rights-Based Approach?

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The Evolving Nature of EU External Relations Law

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Abstract

The fight against trafficking in human beings has been on the European Union’s (EU) internal and external agenda since the 1990s. Having acquired competence to regulate this matter, the EU has gradually developed a legal framework to combat this crime incorporating a human rights-based approach with an emphasis on victim protection. Cooperation with third countries, particularly those on its doorstep including the countries of the Eastern Partnership, has been essential to fight trafficking in human beings to the EU’s territory. The chapter traces the security and human rights nexus embedded in these efforts in the myriad of EU instruments established with the Eastern neighbours in bilateral and regional relations. It concludes that while firmly placed within the domain of the external aspects of the area of freedom, security and justice, the EU has transposed the human rights-based approach most prominently through the reforms associated with visa liberalisation.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    The definition in Article 3(a) includes ‘the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of th1e threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation’. See UNGA 2000.

  2. 2.

    According to Europol, trafficking in human beings generates over 29 billion Euro annually; Europol 2015.

  3. 3.

    See EU Serious and Organised Crime Threat Assessment (SOCTA) reports. https://www.europol.europa.eu/socta-report. Accessed 7 February 2020.

  4. 4.

    European Commission, Communication on the European Agenda on Security, COM (2015) 185 final, p. 16.

  5. 5.

    Up to 70% of registered victims were EU citizens; European Commission, Report on the progress made in the fight against trafficking in human beings (2016) as required under Article 20 of Directive 2011/36/EU; See Directive 2011/36/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5 April 2011 on preventing and combating trafficking in human beings and protecting its victims and replacing Council Framework Decision 2002/629/JHA, OJ 2011 L101/1, p. 4; Europol 2016, p. 3; Eurostat, 2015, p. 13.

  6. 6.

    Council Action-Oriented Paper on strengthening the EU external dimension on action against trafficking in human beings, 11450/5/09, 19 November 2009, p. 3.

  7. 7.

    EC 2012, p. 2; Europol 2016, pp. 4 and 24; European Commission, Ukraine ENP Country Report Staff Working Paper, COM (2004) 373 final, 12 May 2004, p. 14; IOM 2008d, p. 36; European Commission, Moldova ENP Country Report, Staff Working Paper, COM (2004) 373 final, p. 12.

  8. 8.

    Hernandez and Rudolph 2015, p. 134.

  9. 9.

    According to the 2019 report, Georgia is a Tier 1 country, Ukraine, Moldova and Armenia are classed as Tier 2, Azerbaijan is on Tier 2 Watch List, and Belarus is a Tier 3 country; see US Department of State 2019.

  10. 10.

    See most recently Dutch News (2019) Dutch police intercept bus with 65 Moldovans heading to claim asylum. https://www.dutchnews.nl/news/2019/11/dutch-police-intercept-bus-with-65-moldovans-heading-to-claim-asylum/. Accessed 7 February 2020.

  11. 11.

    Scarpa 2008.

  12. 12.

    Charter of Fundament Rights of the European Union, OJ 2012 C 326/02.

  13. 13.

    Directive 2011/36/EU, above n. 5.

  14. 14.

    Ibid., preamble, recital 2.

  15. 15.

    European Commission, Communication on Wider Europe-Neighbourhood: A New Framework for Relations with our Eastern and Southern Neighbours, COM (2003) 104 final, 11 March 2003, p. 11.

  16. 16.

    Association Agreement between the European Union and the European Atomic Energy Community and their Member States, of the one part, and Georgia, of the other part, opened for signature 27 June 2014, OJ L261/4 (entered into force 1 July 2016), (EU-Georgia AA); Association Agreement between the European Union and the European Atomic Energy Community and their Member States, of the one part, and the Republic of Moldova, of the other part, opened for signature 27 June 2014, OJ L260/4 (entered into force 1 July 2016) (EU-Moldova AA); Association Agreement between the European Union and the European Atomic Energy Community and its Member States, of the one part, and Ukraine, of the other part, opened for signature 21 March 2014, OJ L 161/3–2137 (entered into force 1 September 2017) (EU-Ukraine AA).

  17. 17.

    Comprehensive and enhanced Partnership Agreement between the European Union and the European Atomic Energy Community and their Member States, of the one part, and the Republic of Armenia, of the other part, opened for signature 20 November 2017, OJ L23/4 (entered into force (provisionally) 20 November 2017).

  18. 18.

    See further https://www.euneighbours.eu/en/east/stay-informed/projects/eastern-partnership-integrated-border-management-flagship-initiative. Accessed 7 February 2020.

  19. 19.

    The Area of Freedom Security and Justice is defined in Article 3(2) TEU as an area ‘without internal frontiers, in which the free movement of persons is ensured in conjunction with appropriate measures with respect to external border controls, asylum, immigration and the prevention and combatting of crime’; Consolidated Version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, 2012, OJ C 326 (TFEU), Title V.

  20. 20.

    Treaty on European Union OJ 1992 C 191/61, Article K1.

  21. 21.

    COM (96) 567 final, 20 November 1996. This was followed by a subsequent Communication, European Commission, For Further Actions in the Fight Against Trafficking in Women, COM (98) 726 final, 9 December 1998.

  22. 22.

    Grundell 2015, pp. 4–5; Obokata 2006a, pp. 95–96.

  23. 23.

    Treaty of Amsterdam amending the Treaty on European Union, the Treaties establishing the European Communities and certain related acts, 1997, OJ C 340/16 (Amsterdam Treaty), Article 1(11); Berman and Friesendorf 2008, p. 195; Scarpa 2008, p. 175.

  24. 24.

    Ibid. (Amsterdam Treaty), revised Article 34 TEU; Obokata 2006a, pp. 390–393; Obokata 2006b, p. 97.

  25. 25.

    Council Framework Decision 2001/220/JHA of 15 March 2001 on the standing of victims in criminal proceedings, OJ L82.

  26. 26.

    Chaudary 2011, pp. 97–98; Obokata 2006a, pp. 100–101.

  27. 27.

    Council Framework Decision 2002/629/JHA on Combating Trafficking in Human Beings, OJ L203/1.

  28. 28.

    Gallagher 2010, pp. 98–99.

  29. 29.

    Scarpa 2008, pp. 181–183.

  30. 30.

    Council Directive 2004/81/EC of 29 April 2004 on the residence permit issued to third-country nationals who are victims of trafficking in human beings or who have been the subject of an action to facilitate illegal immigration, who cooperate with the competent authorities, OJ L261.

  31. 31.

    Stoyanova 2017, pp. 136–138.

  32. 32.

    Chaudary 2011, pp. 96–97; Grundell 2015, p. 6; Berman and Friesendorf 2008, p. 196; Villacampa Estiarte 2012, p. 293; Krieg 2009, p. 788; Obokata 2006b, p. 94.

  33. 33.

    For detailed criticism, see Scarpa 2008, pp. 185–194; Gallagher 2010, pp. 100–103.

  34. 34.

    These include the 2004 Council Hague Program and the 2009 Stockholm Program; Grundell 2015, p. 5.

  35. 35.

    Council (2005/C 311/01) EU plan on best practices, standards and procedures for combating and preventing trafficking in human being, 1, 3; European Commission, Communication on Fighting Trafficking in Human Beings—An Integrated Approach and Proposals for an Action Plan, COM (2005) 514 final, 18 October 2005; European Commission, Recommendations on Identification and Referral to Services of Victims of Trafficking in Human Beings, 18 October 2007.

  36. 36.

    Bressan 2012, p. 140.

  37. 37.

    Bressan 2012, p. 140.

  38. 38.

    Recital 9, Directive 2011/36, above n. 5; UNGA 2005; Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings, opened for signature 16 May 2005, CETS n. 197 (entered into force 1 February 2008).

  39. 39.

    It currently includes also begging, exploitation for criminal activities, removal of organs.

  40. 40.

    Convention Concerning Forced or Compulsory Labour, opened for signature 28 June 1930, n. 29 (entered into force 1 May 1932); Convention concerning the Abolition of Forced Labour, opened for signature 25 June 1957, n. 105 (entered into force 17 January 1959); Campana and Varese 2015; Gromek-Brok 2011, p. 229.

  41. 41.

    Directive 2011/36, above n. 5, preamble, recital 1, 8 and 33.

  42. 42.

    Ibid., Article 8.

  43. 43.

    Grundell 2015, p. 8; Villacampa Estiarte 2012, p. 306.

  44. 44.

    Gromek-Brok 2011, p. 233.

  45. 45.

    Directive 2011/36, preamble, recital 2.

  46. 46.

    Tampere European Council, 15–16 October 1999, para 23; Conclusions, Santa Maria da Feira European Council, 19 and 20 June, para 52.

  47. 47.

    European Commission, Communication on the Integration of Migration Issues in the EU Relations with Third Countries; the 2004 Hague Programme set the multiannual framework for the next five years; European Commission, 2005 Strategy for the External Dimension of Justice and Home Affairs, COM (2005) 491 final, 12 October 2005.

  48. 48.

    The EU in particular intends to enhance its cooperation with countries where trafficking originates see The Stockholm Programme—An open and secure Europe serving and protecting the citizens’ General Affairs Council/European Council, 2010, OJ C115/1.

  49. 49.

    Tampere European Council, above n. 46, para 23.

  50. 50.

    Scarpa 2008, p. 194.

  51. 51.

    See Brussels Declaration on Preventing and Combating Trafficking in Human Beings, Council General Secretariat, 14981/02, 29 November 2002.

  52. 52.

    European Commission, Decision (EC) 2003/209/EC of 25 March 2003 on setting up a consultative Experts Group on Trafficking in Human Beings.

  53. 53.

    Report of the European Experts Group on Trafficking in Human Beings (EC, 2004) 226, Annex 2 (Final Report of the Experts Group).

  54. 54.

    For instance, Council (2005/C 311/01) above n. 35, calls on Member States and the Commission to ‘strengthen political dialogue with third countries bilaterally and multilaterally on the human rights dimensions of anti-trafficking policies and continue to raise the issue in relevant regional and multi-lateral fora’, s 3, para (iv); COM (2005) 514 final, above n. 35, p. 3.

  55. 55.

    As cited in Scarpa 2008, pp. 145–146.

  56. 56.

    Council of the European Union 2009b, pp. 14–15.

  57. 57.

    Ibid.

  58. 58.

    European Commission, Communication on Reporting on the follow-up to the EU Strategy towards the Eradication of Trafficking in Human Beings and Identifying further Concrete Actions, COM (2017) 728 final, 4 December 2012, pp. 6–7.

  59. 59.

    EU Annual Report on Human Rights and Democracy in the World in 2014, Council, 10152/15, 22 June 2015.

  60. 60.

    European Commission, Communication on the Global Approach to Migration and Mobility, COM (2011) 743 final, 18 November 2011, p. 7.

  61. 61.

    European Commission, Communication on 2005 Strategy for the External Dimension of Justice and Home Affairs, COM (2005) 491 final, 12 October 2005, p. 6; Communication on a European Agenda on Migration, COM (2015) 240 final, 13 May 2015; Communication on the European Agenda on Security, COM (2015) 185 final, 28 April 2015; Communication on the EU Action Plan against Migrant Smuggling (2015–2020), COM(2015) 285 final, 27 May 2015; Council, The Action Plan on Human Rights and Democracy 2015–2019;European Commission/High Representative, Joint Staff Working Document on Gender Equality and Women's Empowerment: Transforming the Lives of Girls and Women through EU External Relations 2016–2020, SWD (2015) 182 final, 21 September 2015, pp. 6, 27; European Commission, The EU’s Strategic Engagement for Gender Equality 2016–2019, 14 March 2016, p. 15; European Commission, Communication towards an EU Strategy on the Rights of the Child, COM (2006) 367 Final, 4 July 2006; EU Guidelines for the Promotion and Protection of the Rights of the Child (2017), pp. 32–34; European Commission, Communication on a Special Place for Children in the EU’s External Action, COM (2008) 55 final, 5 February 2008.

  62. 62.

    The New European Consensus on Development, 9459/17, 19 May 2017, para 40, 71.

  63. 63.

    A Global Strategy for the European Union’s Foreign and Security Policy, June 2016, pp. 35, 38.

  64. 64.

    European Commission, Communication on the European Agenda on Security, COM (2015) 185 final, 28 April 2015 pp. 4, 18.

  65. 65.

    IOM 2008b, p. 24; IOM 2008a, pp. 13, 32–33; IOM 2008c, pp .13, 35; Armenia ENP Country Report 2004, Commission Staff Working Document, COM (2005) 72 final, p. 2.5.

  66. 66.

    2002 Brussels Declaration, above n. 51, p. 4.

  67. 67.

    See for instance for early efforts IOM 2008a, pp. 37–39; IOM 2008c, pp. 40, 42–44.

  68. 68.

    European Commission, Azerbaijan ENP Country Report 2004, Staff Working Document SEC (2005) 286/3, 2 March 2005, p. 2.5.

  69. 69.

    For instance, Moldova had already criminalised trafficking in human beings alongside other state measures to combat trafficking; European Commission, Moldova ENP Country Report 2004, Staff Working Document SEC (2004) 567, 12 May 2004, p. 12.

  70. 70.

    See for instance, IOM 2008a, p. 47; IOM 2008c, pp. 45, 47–48.

  71. 71.

    To name a few: Cremona and Hillion 2006; Cremona 2008; Ghazaryan 2014; Ghazaryan 2013; Van Vooren 2011; Van Elsuwege and Petrov 2011; Smith 2005; Zaiotti 2007; Lannon 2012; Dannreuther 2006; Aliboni 2005; Schumacher et al. 2018.

  72. 72.

    European Commission, Communication on the European Neighbourhood Policy Strategy Paper, COM (2004) 373 final, 21 May 2004, p. 16.

  73. 73.

    Cremona and Hillion 2006, pp. 22–23; Ghazaryan 2014, pp. 24–28.

  74. 74.

    Commission of The European Communities 2003, p. 6.

  75. 75.

    Ibid., pp. 6, 11, 14; ENP Strategy Paper, p. 16.

  76. 76.

    ENP Strategy Paper, p. 21.

  77. 77.

    Ghazaryan 2014, p. 26; Hillion 2008, p. 314.

  78. 78.

    Council of the European Union 2009a, p. 4.

  79. 79.

    European Commission, Joint Communication on a New Response to a Changing Neighbourhood, COM (2011) 303 final, 25 May 2011, pp. 12–13.

  80. 80.

    European Commission, Joint Communication on Review of the European Neighbourhood Policy, JOIN (2015) 50 final, 18 November 2015, pp. 12–13.

  81. 81.

    European Commission, Strategy for the External Dimension of Justice and Home Affairs, COM (2005) 491 final, 12 October 2005, p. 5.

  82. 82.

    European Commission, Communication on Eastern Partnership, COM (2008) 823 final, 3 December 2008, pp. 6, 8.

  83. 83.

    Joint Declaration of the Eastern Partnership Summit, Warsaw, 14983/11, Press 341, 29–30 September 2011, para. 7.

  84. 84.

    See further http://eapmigrationpanel.org/en/about-panel. Accessed 7 February 2020.

  85. 85.

    Expert Meeting on Preventing Facilitation of Irregular Migration, 17–18 October 2017; Panel Meeting on Irregular Migration and Trafficking in Human Beings; 14–15 April 2016; Panel Meeting on Smuggling of Human Beings; 10–11 June 2014; Expert Workshop on Victims of Trafficking in Human Beings, 21–22 May 2013.

  86. 86.

    Kelley 2006; Cremona and Hillion 2006; Ghazaryan 2014; Kochenov 2008.

  87. 87.

    Balzacq 2008, p. 20.

  88. 88.

    For instance, it provided for the ratification and implementation of the international instruments on human rights protection when combatting organised crime, as well as providing assistance inter alia to reintegrate victims of human trafficking.

  89. 89.

    EU-Ukraine ENP Action Plan, s 2.1(15).

  90. 90.

    Revised EU-Ukraine JHA Action Plan, s III.3.

  91. 91.

    EU-Moldova ENP Action Plan, s 2.1(5).

  92. 92.

    Ibid., s 2.5.

  93. 93.

    Ibid., s 4.5.3; on the status of the ‘general actions’, see further Ghazaryan 2014, p. 132.

  94. 94.

    Priority Area 9; EU-Azerbaijan ENP Action Plan, s 4.3.3; Priority Area 4; EU-Georgia ENP Action Plan, s 4.3.3. In the EU-Georgia Action Plan, developing mechanisms of protection, assistance and rehabilitation for victims is included as part of the general objectives.

  95. 95.

    For instance, the Azerbaijan 2010 Progress Report (SEC (2010) 519) called for further effort as part of human rights assessment; Armenia 2012 Progress Report (SWD (2012) 110 final), p. 7; Moldova 2008 Progress Report (SEC (2008) 399), p. 4.

  96. 96.

    See, for instance, Ukraine 2011 Progress Report (SEC (2011) 646), p. 15; Ukraine 2012 Progress Report (SWD (2012) 124 final), p. 4.

  97. 97.

    See https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/treaty/197/signatures?desktop=false. Accessed 7 February 2020.

  98. 98.

    COM (2006) 726 final, 4 December 2006, p. 6.

  99. 99.

    Joint Declaration of the Prague Eastern Partnership Summit, Prague, 7 May 2009, 8435/09, Presse 78; Warsaw 2011 Eastern Partnership Summit Declaration; Joint Declaration of the Eastern Partnership Summit, Vilnius, 28–29 November 2013, 17130/13, Presse 516.

  100. 100.

    Hernandez and Sagrera 2014, p. ii.

  101. 101.

    Stockholm Programme, above n. 48 s 5.2.

  102. 102.

    COM (2011) 743 final, above n. 60, p. 16.

  103. 103.

    Council of the European Union 2012, para 42.

  104. 104.

    See further https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/what-we-do/policies/international-affairs/eastern-partnership/mobility-partnerships-visa-facilitation-and-readmission-agreements_en. Accessed 7 February 2020.

  105. 105.

    Hernandez and Sagrera 2014, pp. 3–4.

  106. 106.

    Belarus Mobility Partnership, para 12.

  107. 107.

    The last country to do so was Belarus, which signed the respective agreements in January 2020.

  108. 108.

    Malmström 2011.

  109. 109.

    EU-Ukraine Visa Liberalisation Action Plan, s 2.4.

  110. 110.

    EU-Ukraine 2010 Visa Liberalisation Action Plan, s 2.3.

  111. 111.

    EU-Ukraine; EU-Moldova, EU-Georgia Visa Liberalisation Action Plans, s 2.3.1.

  112. 112.

    Georgia Visa Liberalisation Action Plan, S 2.3.1.

  113. 113.

    Third Report on the Implementation by Ukraine of the Action Plan on Visa Liberalisation, COM (2013) 809 final, 15 November 2013, pp. 11–12; Fifth Progress Report on the Implementation by Ukraine of the Action Plan on Visa Liberalisation, COM (2015) 200 final, 2 March 2017 pp. 5–6; Sixth Progress Report on the Implementation by Ukraine of the Action Plan on Visa Liberalisation, COM (2015) 905 final, 18 December 2015, p. 6; First Progress Report of the Implementation by the Republic of Moldova of the Action Plan on Visa Liberalisation, SEC (2011) 1075 final, 16 September 2011, p. 7; Second Progress Report on the Implementation by the Republic of Moldova of the Action Plan on Visa Liberalisation, SWD (2012) 12 final, 27 September 2012, p. 12; Report on the Implementation by the Republic of Moldova of the Action Plan on Visa Liberalisation, COM (2012) 348 final, 22 June 2012, p. 12; Fourth Report on the Implementation by the Republic of Moldova of the Action Plan on Visa Liberalisation, COM (2013) 459 final, 21 June 2013, pp. 18–19; Fifth Report on the Implementation by the Republic of Moldova of the Action Plan on Visa Liberalisation, COM (2013) 807 final, 15 November 2013, pp. 17–18.

  114. 114.

    First Progress Report on the Implementation by Georgia of the Action Plan on Visa Liberalisation, COM (2013) 808 final, 15 November 2013, p. 12.

  115. 115.

    Third Progress Report on Georgia’s Implementation of the Action Plan on Visa Liberalisation, COM (2015) 199 final, 8 May 2015, pp. 5–6; Fourth Progress Report on Georgia’s Implementation of the Action Plan on Visa Liberalisation COM (2015) 684 final, 18 December 2015, p. 6.

  116. 116.

    European Commission, First Report under the Visa Suspension Mechanism, COM (2017) 815 final, 20 December 2017; European Commission, Second Report under the Visa Suspension Mechanism, COM (2018) 856 final, 19 December 2018.

  117. 117.

    See, for instance, US Department of State 2018.

  118. 118.

    EU Guidelines on human rights dialogues with non-EU countries, 16526/08, 22 December 2008.

  119. 119.

    Reliefweb 2019, p. 79; EEAS 2010, p. 51.

  120. 120.

    European Court of Auditors 2017.

  121. 121.

    As a matter of exception, the 2010 Moldova human dialogue and the Georgia 2016 human rights dialogue make such a reference.

  122. 122.

    https://eeas.europa.eu/headquarters/headquarters-homepage/34108/eu-azerbaijan-subcommittee-justice-freedom-security-and-human-rights-and-democracy-meets_en. Accessed 7 February 2020.

  123. 123.

    Ghazaryan and Delcour 2018; Alieva et al. 2017.

  124. 124.

    https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2016/11/14/azerbaijan/. Accessed 5 July 2020.

  125. 125.

    European Commission 2009, p. 14.

  126. 126.

    EC 2012, p. 11.

  127. 127.

    EU-Ukraine AA, above n. 16, Article 2; CEPA, Article 2.

  128. 128.

    Fierro 2001; Ghazaryan 2015.

  129. 129.

    20009 EU-Ukraine Association Agenda, S 2.1(f), s 3; 2011–2012 EU-Ukraine Association Agenda, s 3; 2013 EU-Ukraine Association Agenda s 2.1(f), s 3.

  130. 130.

    EU-Ukraine AA, above n. 16, Article 14; CEPA, Article 12(3); EU-Moldova AA, above n. 16, Article 12(3); EU-Georgia AA, above n. 16, Article 13(3).

  131. 131.

    EU-Ukraine AA, above n. 16, Article 16(1); EU-Moldova AA, above n. 16, Article 14(1); EU-Georgia AA, above n. 16, Article 15(1); CEPA, Article 14(1).

  132. 132.

    EU-Ukraine AA, above n. 16, Article 16(2).

  133. 133.

    CEPA, Article 14(2); EU-Moldova AA, above n. 16, Article 14(2); EU-Georgia AA, above n. 16, Article 15(2).

  134. 134.

    EU-Moldova AA, above n. 16, Article 14(2)(d); EU-Ukraine AA, above n. 16, Article 16(2)(b); EU-Georgia AA, above n. 16(2)d; CEPA, Article 14(2)(d).

  135. 135.

    2015 EU-Ukraine Association Agenda, S 2.1.(f); 2014 EU-Moldova Association Agenda, s 2.1(iii).

  136. 136.

    2015 EU-Ukraine Association Agenda, s 3.5(iii); EU-Georgia 2014, 2017–2020 Association Agenda.

  137. 137.

    For instance, in the 2017 EU-Moldova Association Agenda, the implementation of the national action plan on preventing and combatting human trafficking was moved to the area of cooperation on freedom, security and justice, whereas in the 2014 Association Agenda it was placed under the respect of human rights and fundamental freedoms.

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    N. Ghazaryan

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  5. Faculty of Law, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands

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  6. Faculty of Law, Groningen University, Groningen, The Netherlands

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Ghazaryan, N. (2021). The EU’s Policy Towards Combatting Trafficking in Human Beings in Its Relations with the Eastern Neighbourhood: A Human Rights-Based Approach?. In: Douma, W.T., Eckes, C., Van Elsuwege, P., Kassoti, E., Ott, A., Wessel, R.A. (eds) The Evolving Nature of EU External Relations Law. T.M.C. Asser Press, The Hague. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-423-5_15

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