Abstract
The thorax is composed of three segments, the pro-, meso- and metathorax. In almost all insects each segment bears a pair of legs and in most adults both the meso- and metathorax carry a pair of wings. Where the legs are wanting, their absence is secondary. This apodous condition is extremely rare among the imagines but it is the rule among the larvae of the Diptera and certain families of Coleoptera. All Hymenopteran larvae, excepting the vast majority of the suborder Symphyta, are similarly devoid of legs. The absence of wings, on the other hand, may be a primitive character as in the Apterygota, but among the Pterygota it is always a secondary feature due to the loss of pre-existing organs. The thorax is exhibited in a simple form in the Thysanura, in certain more generalized Pterygota and in the larvae of many orders. In these instances the segments differ little in size and proportions, but with the acquisition of wings a correlated specialization of the thorax usually results. The meso- and metathorax become more or less intimately associated to form a pterothorax and the union is often so close that the limits of those regions can only be ascertained with difficulty. In orders where the wings are of about equal area these two thoracic segments are of equal size e.g. Isoptera, Embioptera, Odonata.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
Literature on the Thorax and its Appendages
ALEXANDER, R. D. and BROWN, W. L. (1963), Mating behaviour and the origin of insect wings, Occ. Paper. Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich., 628, 1–19.
ALEXANDER, R. M. (1968), Animal Mechanics, Sidgwick & Jackson, London, 346 pp.
ARNHART, L. (1923), Das Krallenglied der Honigbiene, Arch. Bienenkunde, 5, 37–86.
ARNOLD, J. W. (1963), A note on the pterostigma in insects, Can. Ent., 95, 13–16.
BARTH, R. (1937), Muskulatur und Bewegungsart der Raupen, zugleich ein Beitrag zur Spannbewegung und Schreckstellung der Spannerraupen, Zool. Jb. (Anat.), 62, 507–566.
BARTH, R. (1954), O aparelho saltatorio do Halticineo Homophoeta sexnotata Ha. (Coleoptera), Mem. Inst. Osw. Cruz, 52, 365–376.
BEHRENDS, J. (1935), Ueber die Entwicklung des Lakunen- Ader- und Tracheensystems während Puppenruhe im Flügel der Mehlmotte Ephestia kühniella Zeller, Z. Morph. Ökol. Tiere, 30, 573–596.
BRAUN, A. F. (1919), Wing structure of Lepidoptera and the phylogenetic and taxonomic value of certain persistent Trichopterous characters, Ann. ent. Soc. Am., 12, 349–366.
BRAUN, A. F. (1924), The frenulum and its retinaculum in the Lepidoptera, Ann. ent. Soc.Am., 17, 234–256.
BUDDENBROCK, W. VON (1919), Die vermutliche Lösung der Halterenfrage, Pflügers Arch. ges. Physiol., 175, 125–164.
CHADWICK, I.E. (1953), In: ROEDER, K. D., Insect Physiology, Wiley, New York, pp. 577–655.
CLARE, S. and TAUBER, O. E. (1940), Circulation of haemolymph in the wings of the cockroach Blattella germanica L. I. In normal wings, Iowa St. J. Sci., 14, 107–127.
CLEVER, U. (1959), Über experimentelle Modifikationen des Geäders und die Beziehungen zwischen den Versorgungssystemen im Schmetterlingsflügel. Untersuchungen an Galleria mellonella, Arch. Entw Mech. Org., 151, 242–279.
COMSTOCK, J. H. (1918), The Wings of Insects, Comstock Publ. Co., New York, 430 pp.
COMSTOCK, J. H. and NEEDHAM, J. G. (1898–99), The wings of insects, Am. Nat., 32, 43–48, 81–89, 231–257, 413–422, 560–565, 769–777, 903–911;
COMSTOCK, J. H. and NEEDHAM, J. G. (1898–99), The wings of insects, Am. Nat., 33, 117–126, 573–582, 845–860.
DASHMAN, T. (1953), Terminology of the pretarsus, Ann. ent. Soc. Am., 46, 56–62.
DAVIS, R. A. and FRAENKEL, G. (1940), The oxygen consumption of flies during flight, J. exp. Biol., 17, 402–407.
DORSETT, D. A. (1962), Preparation for flight by hawkmoths, J. exp. Biol., 39, 579–588.
DUPORTE, E. M. (1965), The lateral and ventral sclerites of the insect thorax, Can. Jf.Zool., 43, 141–154.
EDMUNDS, G. F. and TRAVER, J. R. (1954), The flight mechanics and evolution of the wings of Ephemeroptera, with notes on the archetype insect wing, J. Wash.Acad. Sci., 44, 390–400.
EVANS, J. W. (1939), The morphology of the thorax of the Peloridiidae, Proc. R. ent.Soc. Lond., (A), 14, 143–150.
FERRIS, G. F. (1940), The myth of the thoracic sternites of insects, Microentomology, 5, 87–90.
FLOWER, J. W. (1964), On the origin of flight in insects, J. Insect Physiol., 10, 81–88.
FORBES, W. T. M. (1933), The axillary venation of the insects, Proc. 5th int. Congr.Ent., 2, 277–284.
FRAENKEL, G. (1932), Untersuchungen über die Koordination von Reflexen und automatisch-nervösen Rhythmen bei Insekten. I–IV. Z. vergl. Physiol., 16, 371–462.
FUDALEWICZ-NIEMCZYK, W. (1963), L’innervation et les organes sensoriels des Diptères et comparaison avec l’innervation des ailes d’insectes d’autres ordres, Acta Zool. cracov., 8, 351–462.
GETTRUP, E. (1966), Sensory regulation of wing twisting in locusts, J. exp. Biol., 44, 1–16.
GILLETT, J. D. and WIGGLES WORTH, V. B. (1932), The climbing organ of an insect, Rhodniusprolixus (Hemiptera, Reduviidae), Proc. R. Soc. (B), 111, 364–376.
GOUIN, F. J. (1959), Le thorax imaginai des insectes à la lumière des travaux récents, Année biol., 35, 269–303.
GOVIND, C. K. (1972), Differential activity in the coxo-subalar muscle during directional flight in the milkweed bug Oncopeltus, Can. Jf. Zool., 50, 901–905.
GUTHRIE, D. M. (1966), The function and fine structure of the cephalic airflow receptor in Schistocerca gregaria, J. Cell Sci., 1, 463–470.
HAMILTON, K. G. A. (1971), The insect wing. Part I. Origin and development of wings from notal lobes, J. Kansas ent. Soc., 44, 421–433.
HAMILTON, K. G. A. (1972), The insect wing. Part II. Vein homology and the archetypal insect wing, J. Kansas ent. Soc., 45, 54–58.
HINTON, H. E. (1963), The origin of flight in insects, Proc. R. ent. Soc. Lond. (C), 28, 24–25.
HOCKING, B. (1953), The intrinsic range and speed of flight of insects, Trans. Rent. Soc. Lond., 104, 223–345.
HOLDSWORTH, R. P. (1940), The histology of the wing-pads of the early instars of Pteronarcys proteus Newport (Plecoptera), Psyche, 47, 112–119; 714–715.
HOLDSWORTH, R. P. (1942), The wing development of Pteronarcys proteus (Pteronarcidae: Plecoptera), Jf. Morph., 70, 431–462.
HOLLICK, F. S. J. (1940), The flight of the dipterous fly Muscina stabulans Fallén, Phil. Trans. R. Soc., Ser. B, 230, 357–390.
HOLWAY, R. T. (1935), Preliminary note on the structure of the pretarsus and its possible phylogenetic significance, Psyche, 42, 1–24.
HUGHES, G. M. (1965), Locomotion: terrestrial, In: ROCKSTEIN, M. (ed.), The Physiology of Insecta, Academic Press, New York, 2, 227–254.
HUNDERTMARK, A. (1935), Die Entwicklung der Flügel des Mehlkäfers Tenebriomolitor, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Häutungsvorgänge, Z. Morph.Ökol. Tiere, 30, 506–543.
JENSEN, M. (1956), Biology and physics of locust flight. III. The aerodynamics of locust flight, Phil. Trans. R. Soc., Ser. B, 239, 511–552.
JENSEN, M. and WEIS-FOGH, T. (1962), Biology and physics of locust flight. V. Strength and elasticity of locust cuticle, Phil. Trans. R. Soc., Ser. B, 245, 137–169.
JOHNSON, C. G. (1963), The origin of flight in insects, Proc R. ent. Soc. Lond. (C), 28, 26–27.
JOHNSON, C. G. (1969), Migration and Dispersal of Insects by Flight, Chapman & Hall, London, 763 pp.
KAMMER, A. E. (1968), Motor patterns during flight and warm-up in Lepidoptera, J. exp. Biol., 48, 89–109.
KÖHLER, W. (1932), Die Entwicklung der Flügel bei der Mehlmotte Ephestia kühniella Zeller mit besonderer Berücksichtigung des Zeichnungsmusters, Z. Morph. Ökol. Tiere, 24, 582–681.
KROGH, A. ANDZEUTHEN, E. (1941), The mechanism of flight preparation in some insects, J. exp. Biol., 18, 1–10.
KUNTZE, H. (1935), Die Flügelentwicklung bei Philosamia cynthia Drury, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung des Geäders, der Lakunen und der Tracheensysteme, Z. Morph. Ökol. Tiere, 30, 544–572.
LAGRECA, M. (1947), Morphologia funzionale dell’articolazione alare degli Ortotteri, Archo zool. ital., 32, 271–327.
LAGRECA, M. (1954), Riduzione e scomparsa delle ali negli insetti Pterigoti, Archo zool. ital., 39, 361–440.
LAMEERE, A. (1922), Sur la nervation alaire des insectes, Bull. Ac ad. roy. Bruxelles, 8, 138–149.
LARSÉN, O. (1945), Das Meron der Insekten, Förh. K. fysiogr. Sällsk., 15, 96–104.
LARSÉN, O. (1950), Die Veränderungen im Bau der Heteropteren bei der Reduktion des Flugapparates, Opusc. Ent., 15, 17–51.
LARSÉN, O. (1966), On the morphology and function of the locomotor organs of the Gyrinidae and other Coleoptera, Opusc. Ent., Suppl., 30, 1–242.
LESTON, D. (1962), Tracheal capture in ontogenetic and phylogenetic phases of insect wing development, Proc. R. ent. Soc. Lond. (A), 37, 135–144.
LARSÉN, O. (1963), The origin of flight in insects, Proc. R. ent. Soc. Lond. (C), 28, 23–32.
MANTON, S. M. (1972), The evolution of arthropodan locomotory mechanisms. Part 10: Locomotory habits, morphology and evolution of the hexapod classes, Zool. J. Linn. Soc., 51, 203–400.
MATSUDA, R. (1970), Morphology and evolution of the insect thorax, Mem. ent. Soc. Canada, 76, 431 pp.
MITTELSTAEDT, H. (1950), Physiologie des Gleichgewichtssinnes bei fliegenden Libellen, Z. vergl. Physiol., 2, 422–463.
NACHTIGALL, W. (1962), Funktionelle Morphologie, Kinematik und Hydromechanik des Ruderapparates von Gyrinus, Z. vergl. Physiol., 45, 193–226.
NACHTIGALL, W. (1905), Locomotion: swimming (hydrodynamics) of aquatic insects, In: ROCKSTEIN, M. (ed.), The Physiology of Insecta, 2, 255–281.
NACHTIGALL, W. (1966), Die Kinematik der Schlagflügelbewegungen von Dipteren. Methodische und analytische Grundlagen zur Biophysik des Insektenflugs, Z. vergl. Physiol., 52, 155–211.
NACHTIGALL, W. (1974), Insects in Flight, Allen & Unwin, London, 153 pp.
NEEDHAM, J. G. (1903), A genealogic study of dragonfly wing venation, Publ. U.S. nat. Mus., 26, 703–764.
NACHTIGALL, W. (1935), Some basic principles of insect wing venation, Jl N.Y. ent. Soc., 43, 113–129.
NEVILLE, A. C. (1960), Aspects of flight mechanics in anisopterous dragonflies, J. exp. Biol., 37, 631–656.
NORBERG, R. A. (1972), The pterostigma of insect wings as an inertial regulator of wing pitch, J. Comp. Physiol., 83, 9–22.
PHILPOTT, A. (1924), The wing-coupling apparatus in Sabatinca and other primitive genera of Lepidoptera, Rep. Aust. Ass. Advmt Sci., 16, 414–419.
PHILPOTT, A. (1925), On the wing-coupling apparatus of the Hepialidae, Trans. ent. Soc.Lond., 1925, 331–340.
PRINGLE, J. W. S. (1948), The gyroscopic mechanism of the halteres of Diptera, Phil. Trans. R. Soc., Ser. B., 233, 347–384.
PRINGLE, J. W. S. (1957), Insect Flight, Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 133 pp.
PRINGLE, J. W. S. (1965), Locomotion: Flight, In: ROCKSTEIN, M. (ed.), The Physiology of Insecta, 2, 283–329.
PRINGLE, J. W. S. (1968), Comparative physiology of the flight motor, Adv. Insect Physiol., 5, 163–227.
RAINEY, R. C. (ed.) (1976), Insect Flight, Syntp. R. ent. Soc. Lond., 7, 296 pp.
REID, J. A. (1941), The thorax of the wingless and short-winged Hymenoptera, Trans. R. ent. Soc., Lond., 91, 367–446.
SACKTOR, B. (1970), Regulation of intermediary metabolism, with special reference to the control mechanisms in insect flight muscle, Adv. Insect Physiol., 7, 267–347.
SANDER, K. (1956), Bau und Funktion des Sprungapparates von Pyrilla perpusilla Walker (Homoptera-Fulgoroidea), Zool. Jb. (Anat.), 75, 383–388.
SARKARIA, D. S. and PATTON, R. L. (1949), Histological and morphological factors in the penetration of DDT through the pulvilli of several insect species, Trans. Am. ent. Soc., 75, 71–82.
SHENKE, G. (1965), Schwimmhaarsystem und Rudern von Notonecta glauca, Z.Morph. Ökol. Tiere, 55, 631–640.
SCHNEIDER, G. (1953), Die Halteren der Schmeissfliege (Calliphord) als Sinnesorgane und als mechanische Flugstabilisatoren, Z. ver gl. Physiol., 35, 416–458.
SÉGUY, E. (1959), Introduction à l’étude morphologique de l’aile des insectes, Mém.Mus. Hist. nat. Paris, N.S., 21A, 1–248.
SHARPLIN, J. (1963, 1964), Wing base structure in Lepidoptera I—III, Can. Ent., 95, 1024–1050, 1121–1145;
SHARPLIN, J. (1963, 1964), Wing base structure in Lepidoptera I—III, Can. Ent., 96, 943–949.
SMART, J. (1956), A note on insect wing veins and their tracheae, Q. Jl microsc. Sci., 97, 535–539.
SMITH, D. S. (1964), The structure and development of flightless Coleoptera: a light- and electron microscope study of the wings, thoracic exoskeleton and rudimentary flight muscles, J. Morph., 114, 107–184.
SNODGRASS, R. E. (1927), Morphology and mechanism of the insect thorax, Smithson. misc. Colins, 80, 1–108.
SNODGRASS, R. E. (1929), The thoracic mechanism of a grasshopper and its antecedents, Smithson. misc. Colins, 82, 1–111.
SNODGRASS, R. E. (1935), Principles of Insect Morphology, McGraw-Hill, London and New York, 667 pp.
STELLWAAG, F. (1916), Wie steuern die Insekten im Flug? Naturwissenschaften, 4, 256–259, 270–272.
ŠULC, K. (1927), Das Tracheensystem von Lepisma (Thysanura) und Phylogenie der Pterygogenea, Acta. Soc. sci. nat. Moravia, 4, 227–344.
TANNERT, W. (1958), Die Flügelgelenkung bei Odonaten, Dtsch. ent. Z., (N.F.) 5, 394–455.
TIEGS, O. W. (1955), The flight muscles of insects — their anatomy and histology, with some observations on the structure of striated muscles in general, Phil.Trans. R. Soc., Ser. B, 238, 221–348.
TILLYARD, R. J. (1918a), The Panorpoid complex. i. The wing-coupling apparatus with special reference to the Lepidoptera, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 43, 286–319.
TILLYARD, R. J. (1918b), The Panorpoid complex. ii. The wing trichiation and its relation to the general scheme of venation, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 43, 626–657.
VIGNON, P. (1929), Introduction à nouvelles recherches de morphologie comparée sur l’aile des insectes, Arch. Mus. Hist. nat. Paris, 4, 89–125.
VOGEL, S. (1966–67), Flight in Drosophila. I—III, J. exp. Biol., 44, 567–578;
VOGEL, S. (1966–67), Flight in Drosophila. I—III, J. exp. Biol., 46, 383–392; 431–443.
WADDINGTON, C. H. (1941), The genetic control of wing development in Drosophila, J. Genet., 41, 73–139.
WEBER, H. (1930), Biologie der Hemipteren. Eine Naturgeschichte der Schnabelkerfe, Springer, Berlin, 543 pp.
WEIS-FOGH, T. (1950), An aerodynamic sense organ in locusts, Proc. 8th int. Congr.Ent., Stockholm, 1948, 584–588.
WEIS-FOGH, T. (1956a), Biology and physics of locust flight. II. Flight performance of the desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria), Phil. Trans. R. Soc., Ser. B, 239, 459–510.
WEIS-FOGH, T. (1956b), Biology and physics of locust flight. IV. Notes on sensory mechanisms in locust flight, Phil. Trans. R. Soc., Ser. B, 239, 553–584.
WEIS-FOGH, T. (1972), Energetics of hovering flight in hummingbirds and in Drosophila, J. exp. Biol., 56, 79–104.
WEIS-FOGH, T. and JENSEN, M. (1956), Biology and physics of locust flight. I. Basic principles in insect flight. A critical review, Phil. Trans. R. Soc., Ser. B, 239, 415–458.
WHITTEN, J. M. (1962), Homology and development of insect wing tracheae, Ann.ent. Soc. Am., 55, 288–295.
WIGGLESWORTH, V. B. (1954), Growth and regeneration in the tracheal system of an insect, Rhodnius prolixus (Hemiptera), Q. Jl microsc. Sci., 95, 115–137.
WIGGLESWORTH, V. B. (1963), The origin of flight in insects, Proc. R. ent. Soc. Lond. (C), 28, 23–24.
WIGGLESWORTH, V. B. (1973), Evolution of insect wings and flight, Nature, 246, 127–129.
WILSON, D. M. (1966), Insect walking, A. Rev. Ent., 11, 103–122.
WILSON, D. M. (1968), The nervous control of insect flight and related behaviour, Adv. InsectPhysiol., 5, 289–338.
WOODRING, J. P. (1962), Oribatid (Acari) pteromorphs, Pterogasterine phylogeny, and evolution of wings, Ann. ent. Soc. Am., 55, 394–403.
YEAGER, J. F. and HENDRICKSON, G. O. (1934), Circulation of the blood in wings and wing-pads of the cockroach, Periplaneta americana Linn, Ann. ent. Soc.Am., 27, 257–272.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1977 O. W. Richards and R. G. Davies
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Richards, O.W., Davies, R.G. (1977). The Thorax. In: IMMS’ General Textbook of Entomology. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-6514-3_5
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-6514-3_5
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-0-412-15210-8
Online ISBN: 978-94-011-6514-3
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive