Abstract
The functioning of the tropical atmosphere in the course of the average annual cycle and the role of weather disturbances in these processes are discussed in Chapters 6 and 7, while Chapter 4 provides an orientation on the characteristic average mode of operation of the low-latitude oceans. This background is required for the understanding of year-to-year variations which are to be explored in the present chapter. The mechanisms of interannual variability of the combined atmosphere-hydrosphere system are manifest in changes of the atmospheric and oceanic circulation and extreme events — especially rainfall anomalies — in the regional climates. Regional climate anomalies appear in part related to circulation changes on the scale of the global tropics.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Aceituno, P., 1988: ‘On the functioning of the Southern Oscillation in the South American sector. Part I: surface climate’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 116, 505–524..
Aceituno, P., 1989: ‘On the functioning of the Southern Oscillation in the South American sector. Part II: upper-air circulation’. J. Climate, 2, 341–355.
Adamec, D., O’Brien, J. J., 1978: ‘The seasonal upwelling in the Gulf of Guinea due to remote orcing’. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 8, 1050–1060.
Adedokun, J. A., 1981: ‘Potential instability and precipitation occurrence within an inter-tropical discontinuity environment’. Archiv Meteor. Geophys. Bioklim., Ser. A, 30, 69–86.
Adedokun, J. A., 1982: ‘On an instability index relevant to precipitation forecasting in West Africa’. Archiv Meteor. Geophys. Bioklim., Ser. A, 31, 221–230.
Adedoyin, J. A., 1989: ‘Global-scale sea surface temperature anomalies and rainfall characteristics in Northern Nigeria’. J. Climatol., 9, 133–144.
Aldaz, L., 1983: ‘Aplicación del concepto de interacción de escalas temporales al fenómeno de las sequías extremas en el Nordeste del Brazil’. Doctoral Dissertation, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, 329 pp.
Alexander, B., Keshavamurthy, R. N., Mikhopadhay, R. K., Bhosale, S. G., 1974: ‘Pacific equatorial pressure gradient and monsoon rainfall’. Nature, 252, 463–464.
Allan, R. J., Pariwono, J. I., 1990: ‘Ocean-atmosphere interactions in low-latitude Australia’. Int. J. Climatol., 10, 145–178.
Anderson, D. L. T., McCreary, J. P., 1985: ‘Slowly propagating disturbances in a coupled ocean-atmosphere model.’ J. Atmos. Sci., 42, 615–629.
Angell, J. K., 1981: ‘Comparison of variations in atmospheric quantities with sea surface temperature variations in the Equatorial Eastern Pacific’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 109, 230–243.
Angell, J. K., 1988: ‘Variations and trends in tropospheric and stratospheric global temperatures, 1958–87’. J. Climate, 1, 1296–1313.
Angell, J. K., Korshover, J., 1974: ‘Quasi-biennial and long-term fluctuations in the centers of action’. Mon. Wea. Rev. 102, 669–678.
Angell, J. K., Korshover, J., 1984: ‘Some long-term relations between equatorial sea-surface temperature, the four centers of action and 700 mb flow’. J. Climate Appl. Meteor, 23, 1326–1332.
Angell, J. K., Korshover, J., 1987: ‘Variability in United States cloudiness and its relationship to El Niño’. J. Climate Appl. Meteor., 26, 580–584.
Anonymous, 1990: ‘El Niño forecast with supercomputer’. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 71, 369.
Arkin, P. A., 1984: ‘An examination of the Southern Oscillation in the upper troposphere tropical and subtropical wind field’. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Maryland, 240 pp.
Atkinson, G. D., Sadler, J. C., 1970: ‘Mean cloudiness and gradient-level wind charts over the tropics’. Air Weather Service Technical Report No. 215, 2 vols.
Bah, A., 1987: ‘Towards the prediction of Sahelian rainfall from sea surface temperatures in the Gulf of Guinea’. Tellus, 39A, 39–48.
Barber, R. T., Chavez, F.P., 1983: ‘Biological consequences of El Niño’. Science, 222, 1203–1210.
Barnett, T. P., 1977: ‘An attempt to verify some theories of El Niño’. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 7, 633–647.
Barnett, T. P., 1981: ‘Statistical relations between ocean-atmosphere fluctuations in the tropical Pacific’. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 11, 1043–1058.
Barnett, T. P., 1983: ‘Interaction of the monsoon and Pacific trade wind system at interannual time scales, part 1: The equatorial zone’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 111, 756–773.
Barnett, T. P., 1984a: ‘Prediction of El Niño of 1982–83’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 112, 1403–1407.
Barnett, T. P., 1984b: ‘Interaction of the monsoon and Pacific trade wind system at interannual time scales, part 2: the tropical band’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 112, 2380–2387.
Barnett, T. P., 1984c: ‘Interaction of the monsoon and Pacific trade wind system at interannual time scales, part 3: a partial anatomy of the Southern Oscillation’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 112, 2388–2400.
Barnett, T., Graham, N., Cane, M., Zebiak, S., Dolan, S., O’Brien, J., Legler, D., 1988: ‘On the prediction of the El Niño of 1986–87’. Science, 241, 192–196.
Battisti, D. S., 1989: ‘On the role of off-equatorial oceanic Rossby waves during ENSO’. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 19, 551–559.
Bedi, H. S., Bindra, M. M. S., 1980: ‘Principal components of monsoon rainfall’. Tellus, 32, 296–298.
Beer, T., Greenhut, G. K., Tandoh, S. E., 1977: ‘Relations between the Z criterion for the subtropical high, Hadley cell parameters and the rainfall in northern Ghana’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 105, 849–855.
Berkofsky, L., 1977: ‘The relation between surface albedo and vertical velocity in a desert’. Beitr. Phys. Atmos., 50, 313–320.
Berlage, H. P., 1927: ‘East-monsoon forecasting in Java’. Koninklijk Magnetisch en Meteorologisch Observatorium te Batavia, Indonesia, Verhandelingen No. 20, 42 pp.
Berlage, H. P., 1934: ‘Further research into the possibility of long range forecasting in Netherlands – India’. Koninklijk Magnetisch en Meteorologisch Observatorium te Batavia, Indonesia, Verhandelingen no. 26, 31 pp.
Berlage, H. P., 1957: ‘Fluctuations of the general circulation of more than one year, their nature and prognostic value’. Koninklijk Nederlands Meteorologisch Instituut, Mededelingen en Verhandelingen No. 69, 159 pp.
Berlage, H. P., 1966: ‘The Southern Oscillation and World weather’. Koninklijk Nederlands Meteorologisch Instituut, Mededelingen en Verhandelingen No. 88, 152 pp.
Berlage, H. P., de Boer, H. J., 1959: ‘On the extension of the Southern Oscillation throughout the World during the period 1 July 1949 to 1 July 1957’. Geofísica pura e applicata, 44, 286–295.
Berlage, H. P., de Boer, H. J., 1960: ‘On the Southern Oscillation, its way of operation and how it affects pressure patterns in the higher latitudes’. Geofisica pura e applicata, 46, 329–351.
Bhalme, H. N., Mooley, D. A., 1980: ‘Large-scale droughts/floods and monsoon circulation’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 108, 1197–1211.
Bhalme, H. N., Mooley, D. A., Jadhav, S. K., 1983: ‘Fluctuations in the drought/flood area over India and relationships with the Southern Oscillation’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 111, 86–94.
Bhalme, H. N., Rahalkar, S. S., Sikder, A. B., 1987: Tropical quasi-biennial oscillation of the 10-mb wind and Indian monsoon rainfall - implications for forecasting’. J. Climatol., 7, 345–353.
Bhanu Kumar, O. S. R. U., 1988: ‘Interaction between Eurasian winter snow cover and location of the ridge at the 500 hPa level along 75 °E.’ J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 66, 509–514.
Bhargava, B. N., Bansal, R. K., 1969: ‘A quasi-biennial oscillation in precipitation at some Indian stations’. Indian J. Meteorol. Geophys., 20, 127–128.
Bhatt, U. S., 1989: ‘Circulation regimes of rainfall anomalies in the African - South Asian monsoon belt.’ J. Climate, 2, 1133–1144.
Bhullar, G. S., 1952: ‘Onset of monsoon over Delhi.’ Indian J. Meteor. Geophys., 3, 25–30.
Bjerknes, J., 1966: ‘A possible response of the atmospheric Hadley circulation to equatorial anomalies of ocean temperature’. Tellus, 18, 820–829.
Bjerknes, J., 1969: ‘Atmospheric teleconnections from the equatorial Pacific’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 97, 163–172.
Blanford, H. F., 1984: ‘On the connexion of the Himalaya snowfall with dry winds and seasons of drought in India’. Proc. Roy. Soc. London, 37, 3–22.
Braak, C., 1919: ‘Atmospheric variations of short and long duration in the Malay Archipelago and neighbouring regions, and the possibility to forecast them’. Koninkljik Magnetisch en Meteorologisch Observatorium te Batavia, Indonesia, Verhandelingen No. 5, 57 pp.
Braak, C., 1921–29: ‘Het climaat van Nederlandsch Indië’. Magnetisch en Meteorologisch Observatorium te Batavia, Verhandelingen, No. 8, parts 1 and 2, 787 and 802 pp.
Brier, G. W., 1978: ‘The quasi-biennial oscillation and feedback processes in the atmosphere-ocean-earth system’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 106, 938–946.
Bruce, J., 1983: ‘The wind field in the Western Indian Ocean and the related ocean circulation’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 111, 1442–1452.
Bryson, R. A., 1973: ‘Drought in Sahelia: who or what is to blame?’ The Ecologist, 3, 366–371.
Bultot, F., Griffiths, J. F., 1972: ‘The equatorial wet zone’. Chapter 8, pp. 259–312, World survey of climatology, vol. 10: Climates of Africa. Elsevier, New York, 604 pp.
Bunting, A. H., Dennett, M. D., Elston, J., Milford, J. R., 1976: ‘Rainfall trends in the West African Sahel’. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 102, 59–64.
Busalacchi, A. J., 1982: ‘Linear wind-driven variability of the tropical Pacific and Atlantic Oceans’. Department of Oceanography, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Fla., Technical Report NSF Grants ATM 7920485 and OCE 8119052, 138 pp.
Busalacchi, A. J., Cane, M. A., 1985: ‘Hindcasts of sea level variations during the 1982–83 El Niño.’ J. Phys. Oceanogr., 15, 213–221.
Busalacchi, A. J., O’Brien, J. J., 1980: ‘The seasonal variability in a model of the tropical Pacific’. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 10, 1929–1951.
Busalacchi, A. J., O’Brien, J. J., 1981: ‘Interannual variability of the Equatorial Pacific in the 1960’s’. J. Geophys. Res., 86, 10901–10907.
Busalacchi, A. J., Picaut, J., 1983: ‘Seasonal variability from a model of the tropical Atlantic Ocean’. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 13, 1564–1588.
Busalacchi, A. J., Takeuchi, K., O’Brien, J. J., 1983a: ‘Interannual variability of the equatorial Pacific - revisited’. J. Geophys. Res., 88, 7551–7562.
Busalacchi, A. J., Takeuchi, K., O’Brien, J. J., 1983b: ‘On the interannual wind-driven response of the tropical Pacific Ocean’, pp. 155–195, in Nihoul, J. C. J. (ed.), Hydrodynamics of the equatorial ocean, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 368 pp.
Cadet, D. L., 1985: ‘The Southern Oscillation over the Indian Ocean’. J. Climatol., 5, 189–212.
Cadet, D. L., Beltrando, G., 1990: ‘Interannual variability of rainfall over East Africa during the short rainy season (October–November): relationship with surface fields over the Indian Ocean and forecasting.’ pp. 147 in Proceedings of Third WMO Symposium on the Meteorological Aspects of Tropical Droughts with Emphasis on Long-Range Forecasting. WMO/TD-No. 353, Geneva, Switzerland, 303 pp.
Cadet, D. L., Diehl, B. C., 1984: ‘Interannual variability of surface fields over the Indian Ocean during recent decades’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 112, 1921–1935.
Cadet, D., Gamier, R., 1988: ‘L’Oscillation Australe et ses relations avee les anomalies climatiques globales’. La Météorologie, 21, 4–18.
Cane, M. A., 1983: ‘Oceanographie events during El Niño’. Science, 222, 1189–1195.
Cane, M. A., 1984: ‘Modeling sea level during El Niño’. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 14, 1864–1874.
Cane, M. A., 1986: ‘El Niño’. Ann. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 14, 43–70.
Cane, M. A., Zebiak, S. E., 1985: ‘A theory for El Niño and the Southern Oscillation.’ Science, 228, 1085–1087.
Cane, M. A., Zebiak, S. E., Dolan, S. D., 1986: ‘Experimental forecasts of El Niño’. Nature, 321, 827–832.
Carleton, A. M., 1988: Sea ice-atmosphere signal of the Southern Oscillation in the Weddell Sea, Antarctica. J. Climate, 1, 379–388.
Carvalho, O., ed., 1973: ‘Plano integrado para o combate preventivo aos efeitos das Sêcas do Nordeste’. Ministerio do Interior, Serie Desenvolvimento Regional, 1, 237 pp.
Cavazos, T., Hastenrath, S., 1990: ‘Convection and rainfall over Mexico and their modulation by the Southern Oscillation.’ Int. J. Climatol., 10, 377–386.
Caviedes, C. N., 1973: ‘Sêcas and El Niño: two simultaneous climatological hazards in South America’. Proc. Assoc. Amer. Geogr., 5, 44–49.
Charney, J. G., 1975: ‘Dynamics of deserts and drought in the Sahel’. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 101, 193–202.
Charney, J. G., Quirk, W. J., Chow, S. H., Kornfield, J., 1977: ‘A comparative study of the effects of albedo change on drought in semi-arid regions’. J. Atmos. Sci., 34, 1366–1385.
Charney, J. G., Stone, P. H., Quirk, W. J., 1975: ‘Drought in the Sahara: a biogeophysical feedback mechanism’. Science, 187, 434–435.
Charney, J. G., Stone, P. H., Quirk, W. J., 1976: ‘Drought in the Sahara: insufficient biogeophysical feedback?’ Reply’. Science, 191, 100–102.
Chervin, R. M., Druyan, L. M., 1984: ‘The influence of ocean surface temperature gradient and continentality on the Walker Circulation, part 1: prescribed tropical changes’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 112, 1510–1523.
Chiswell, S. M., Watts, D. R., Wimbush, M., 1986: ‘Using inverted echo sounders to measure dynamic height in the eastern equatorial Pacific during the 1982–1983 El Niño.’ Deep-Sea Res., 33A, 981–991.
Chiswell, S. M., Watts, D. R., Wimbush, M., 1987: ‘Inverted echo sounder observations of variability in the eastern equatorial Pacific during the 1982–1983 El Niño.’ Deep-Sea Res., 34A, 313–327.
Chiu, W.-C., Lo, A., 1979: ‘A preliminary study of the possible statistical relationship gradient and continentality on the Walker Circulation, part 1: ‘prescribed tropical changes’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 107, 18–25.
Chu, P.-S., 1983: ‘Diagnostic studies of rainfall anomalies in Northeast Brazil’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 111, 1655–1664.
Chu, P.-S., 1984: ‘Time and space variability of rainfall and surface circulation in the Northeast Brazil - tropical Atlantic sector’. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 62, 363–370.
Chu, P.-S., Hastenrath, S., 1981: ‘Diagnostic studies of Brazil climate: preliminary results’. Department of Meteorology, University of Wisconsin, Project Report NOAA Grant NA79AA-D-00131, 55 pp.
Chu, P.-S., Hastenrath, S., 1982: ‘Atlas of upper-air circulation over tropical South America’. Mepartment of Meteorology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, 237 pp.
Chu, P.-S., Katz, R. W., 1985: ‘Modeling and forecasting the Southern Oscillation: a time-domain approach’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 113, 1876–1888.
Citeau, J., Finaud, L., Cammas, J.P., Demarcq, H., 1989: ‘Questions relative to the ITCZ migrations over the tropical Atlantic Ocean, sea surface temperature and Senegal River runoff.’ Meteorol. Atmos. Phys., 41, 181–190.
Climate Analysis Center, NOAA, 1984–90: Climate diagnostics Bulletin. Washington, D.C.
Colón, J. A., 1964: ‘On interactions between the Southwest monsoon current and sea surface over the Arabian Sea’. Indian J. Met. Geophys., 15, 183–200.
Compagnucci, R. H., Vargas, W. M., 1983: ‘Análisis espectral de las series de precipitatión estival’, pp. 150–153 in: Preprints of First International Conference on Southern Hemisphere Meteorology, 31 July - 6 August 1983, São José dos Campos, Brazil, Amer. Meteor. Soc, 380 pp.
Conselho Nacional de Pesquisas, Brazil, 1980: ‘Workshop on drought forecasting for Northeast Brazil’. Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciasis, São José dos Campos, São Paulo, Brazil, 45 pp.
Courel, M. F., Kandel, R. S., Rasool, S. I., 1984: ‘Surface albedo and the Sahel drought’. Nature, 307, 528–538.
Covey, D. L., Hastenrath, S., 1978: ‘The Pacific El Niño phenomenon and the Atlantic circulation’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 106, 1280–1287.
Cucalon, E., 1987: ‘Oceanographie variability off Ecuador associated with an El Niño event in 1982–1983.’ JGR-Oceans, 92, C13, 14309–14322.
Cunnington, W. M., Rowntree, P. R., 1986: ‘Simulations of the Saharan atmosphere - dependence on moisture and albedo.’ Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 112, 971–999.
da Cunha, E., 1979: Os sertões. 28th edition, Franscisco Alves, Rio de Janeiro, 416 pp.
da Silva Marques, V., Rao, V. B., Molión, L. B. C., 1983: ‘Inter-annual and seasonal variations in the structure and energetics of the atmosphere over Northeast Brazil’. Tellus, 35A, 136–148.
Davy, E. G., 1974: ‘Drought in West Africa’. WMO Bulletin, 23, 18–23.
de Boer, H. J., 1947: ‘On forecasting the beginning and the end of the dry monsoon in Java and Madura’. Koninklijk Magnetisch en Meteorologisch Observatorium te Batavia, Indonesia, Verhandelingen No. 32, 20 pp.
de Boer, H. J., Euwe, W., 1949a: ‘On long-periodical temperature variations’. Koninklijk Magnetisch en Meteorologisch Observatorium te Batavia, Indonesia, Verhandelingen No. 35, 16 pp.
de Boer, H. J., Euwe, W., 1949b: ‘Forecasting rainfall in the period July-August-September for parts of Celebes and South Borneo’. Koninklijk Magnetisch en Meteorologisch Observatorium te Batavia, Indonesia, Verhandelingen No. 36, 14 pp.
de Mesquita, A. R., Morettin, P. A., 1984: ‘Interannual variations of precipitation at Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil’. Tropical Ocean-Atmosphere Newsletter, 27, 9–10.
Deser, C., Wallace, J. M., 1987: ‘El Niño events and their relation to the Southern Oscillation: 1925–1986’. JGR-Oceans, 92, C13, 14189–14196.
Deshpande, V.R., Kripalani, R.H., Paul, D.K., 1986: ‘Some facts about monsoon onset dates are Kerala and Bombay.’ Mausam, 37, 467–470.
Dey, B., Bhanu Kumar, O. S. R. U., 1982: ‘An apparent relationship between Eurasian snow cover and the advance period of Indian summer monsoon’. J. Appl. Meteor., 21, 1929–1932.
Dey, B., Bhanu Kumar, O. S. R. U., 1983: ‘Himalayan winter snow cover area and summer monsoon rainfall over India’. J. Geophys. Res., 88, C9, 5471–5474.
Dey, B., Bhanu Kumar, O. S. R. U., 1984: ‘Reply (to comments by Ropelewski, C. F., Robock, A., Matson, M.)’. J. Climate Appl. Meteor., 23, 343–344.
Dey, B., Kathuria, S. N., Bhanu Kumar, O. S. R. U., 1985: ‘Himalayan summer snow cover and the withdrawal of the Indian summer monsoon’. J. Climate Appl. Meteor., 24, 865–868.
Dhar, O. N., Rakhecha, P. R., 1983: ‘Foreshadowing Northeast monsoon rainfall over Tamil Nadu, India’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 111, 109–112.
Diaz, H. F., Bradley, R. S., Eischeid, J. K., 1989: ‘Precipitation fluctuations over global land areas sine the late 1800’s’. J. Geophys. Res., 94, D1, 1195–1210.
Dickson, R. R., 1984: ‘Eurasian snow cover versus Indian monsoon rainfall - an extension of the Hahn-Shukla results’. J. Climate Appl. Meteor., 23, 171–173.
Donguy, J. R., Dessier, A., 1983: ‘El Niño-like events in the tropical Pacific’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 111, 2136–2139.
Douglas, A. V., Englehart, P. J., 1981: On a statistical relationship between autumn rainfall in the central equatorial Pacific and subsequent winter precipitation in Florida. Mon. Wea. Rev., 109, 2377–2381.
Druyan, L. M., 1987: ‘GCM studies of the African summer monsoon’. Climate Dynamics, 2, 117–126.
Druyan, L. M., 1988: ‘Sea surface temperature - Sahel drought teleconnections in GCM simulations’, pp. 154–165 in Gregory, S., ed: Recent climate change; a regional approach. Belhaven Press, London, 326 pp.
Druyan, L. M., 1989: ‘Advances in the study of Sub-Saharan drought’. Int. J. Climatol., 9, 77–90.
Druyan, L. M., Koster, R. D., 1989: ‘Sources of Sahel precipitation for simulated drought and rainy seasons’. J. Climate, 2, 1438–1446.
Druyan, L. M., Hastenrath, S., 1991: ‘Modelling the differential impact of 1984 and 1950 sea surface temperatures in Sahel rainfall’. Int. J. Climatol., in press.
Düing, W., Leetmaa, A., 1980: ‘Arabian Sea cooling: a preliminary heat budget’. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 111, 2136–2139.
du Penhoat, Y., Gouriou, Y., 1987: ‘Hindcasts of equatorial sea surface dynamic height in the Atlantic in 1982–1984’. JGR-Oceans, 92, C4, 3729–3740.
Egger, J., 1977: ‘On the linear theory of the atmospheric response to sea surface temperature anomalies’. J. Atmos. Sci., 34, 603–614.
Elliott, W. P., Angell, J. K., 1987: ‘The relation between Indian monsoon rainfall, the Southern Oscillation, and hemispheric air and sea temperature: 1884–1984’. J. Climate Appl. Meteor., 26, 943–948.
Elliott, W. P., Angell, J. K., 1988: ‘Evidence for changes in Southern Oscillation relationships during the last 100 years’. J. Climate, 1, 729–737.
Ellsaesser, H. W., MacCracken, M. C, Potter, G. L., Luther, F. M., 1976: ‘An additional model test of positive feedback from high desert albedo’. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 102, 543–544.
Euwe, W., 1949a: ‘Forecasting rainfall in the periods December-January-February and April-May-June for parts of Celebes and South Borneo’. Koninklijk Magnetisch en Meteorologisch Observatorium te Batavia, Indonesia, Verhandelingen, No. 38, 23 pp.
Euwe, W., 1949b: ‘Forecasting rainfall for the period December-January-February for Java and Madoera’. Koninklijk Magnetisch en Meteorologisch Observatorium te Batavia, Indonesia, Verhandelingen No. 39, 16 pp.
Farmer, G., 1988: ‘Seasonal forecasting of the Kenya coast short rains, 1901–84’. J. Climatol., 8, 489–497.
Faure, H., Gac, J. Y., 1981a: ‘Will the Sahelian drought end in 1985?’ Nature, 291, 475–478.
Faure, H., Gac, J. Y., 1981b: ‘Senegal river runoff, reply’. Nature, 293, 414.
Feely, R. A., Gammon, R. H., Taft, B, A., Pullen, P. A., Waterman, L. S., Conway, T. J., Gendron, J. F., Wisegarver, D. P., 1987: ‘Distribution of the chemical tracers in the eastern equatorial Pacific during and after the 1982–1983 El Niño/Southern Oscillation event’. JGR-Oceans, 92, C6, 6545–6558.
Feldman, G., Clark, D., Halpern, D., 1984: ‘Satellite color observations of the phytoplankton distribution in the eastern equatorial Pacific during the 1982–83 El Niño’. Science, 226, 1069–1071.
Fennessy, M. J., Marx, L., Shukla, J., 1985: ‘General circulation model sensitivity to 1982–83 equatorial Pacific sea surface temperature anomalies’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 113, 858–864.
Fennessy, M. J., Shukla, J., 1988: ‘Numerical simulation of the atmospheric response to the time-varying El Niño SST anomalies during May 1982 through October 1983’. J. Climate, 1, 195–211.
Fiedler, P. C., Methot, R. D., Hewitt, R. P., 1986: ‘Effects of California El Niño 1982–1984 on the northern anchovy’. J. Mar. Res., 44, 317–338.
Flohn, H., 1960: ‘Equatorial westerlies over Africa, their extension and significance’, p 253–264 in Proceedings of Symposium on Tropical Meteorology in Africa, 1958. Nairobi, 446 pp.
Flohn, H., 1964: ‘Grundfragen der Paläoklimatologie im Lichte einer theoretischen Klimatologie’. Geologische Rundschau, 54, 504–515.
Flohn, H., 1965: ‘Probleme der theoretischen Klimatologie’. Naturwissenschaftliche Rundschau, 18, 385–392.
Folland, C. K., Palmer, T. N., Parker, D. E., 1986: ‘Sahel rainfall and worldwide sea temperature’. Nature, 320, 602–607.
Fraedrich, K., 1988: ‘El Niño/Southern Oscillation predictability’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 116, 1001–1012.
Fu, C.-B., Fletcher, J. O., 1985: ‘The relationship between Tibet - tropical ocean thermal contrast and interannual variability of Indian monsoon rainfall’. J. Climate Appl. Meteor., 24, 841–847.
Gage, K. S., Reid, G. C., 1987: ‘Longitudinal variations in tropical tropopause properties in relation to tropical convection and El Niño - Southern Oscillation events’. JGR-Oceans, 92, C13, 14197–14203.
Gill, A.E., Rasmusson, E.M., 1983: ‘The 1982–83 climate anomaly in the equatorial Pacific’. Nature, 306, 229–234.
Goldberg, R. A., Tisnado M, G., Scofield, R. A., 1987: ‘Characteristics of extreme rainfall events in northwestern Peru during the 1982–1983 El Niño period’. JGR-Oceans, 92, C13, 14225–14241.
Gonçalves de Souza, J., 1979: ’O Nordeste Brasileiro.‘ Banco do Nordeste do Brazil, Fortaleza, 409 pp.
Graham, N. E., Michaelson, J., Barnett, T. P., 1987a: ‘An investigation of the El Niño- Southern Oscillation cycle with statistical models, 1, predictor field characteristics’. JGR-Oceans, 92, C13, 14251–14270.
Graham, N. E., Michaelson, J., Barnett, T. P., 1987b: ‘An investigation of the El Niño - Southern Oscillation cycle with statistical models, 2, model results’. JGR-Oceans, C13, 14271–14289.
Graham, N. E., White, W. B., 1988: ‘The El Niño cycle: a natural oscillator of the Pacific Ocean - atmosphere system’. Science, 240, 1293–1302.
Greenhut, G. K., 1977: ‘A new criterion for locating the subtropical high in West Africa’. J. Appl. Meteor., 16, 729–734.
Grove, A. T., 1972: ‘Climatic change in Africa in the last 20,000 years’. Les problèmes de développement du Sahara Septentrional, vol. 2, Alger.
Grove, A. T., 1983: ‘A note on the remarkably low rainfall of the Sudan in 1913’. Savanna, 2, 133–138.
Hackert, E. C., Hastenrath, S., 1986: ‘On mechanisms of Indonesia rainfall anomalies’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 114, 745–757.
Hahn, D. G., Shukla, J., 1976: ‘An apparent relationship between Eurasian snow cover and Indian monsoon rainfall’. Atmos. Sci., 33, 2461–2462.
Handler, P., Andsager, K., 1990: ‘Volcanic aerosols, El Niño and the Southern Oscillation.’ Int. J. Climatol., 10, 413–424.
Harrison, D. E., Kessler, W. S., Giese, B. S., 1989: ‘Ocean circulation model hindcasts of the 1982–83 El Niño: thermal variability along the ship-of-opportunity tracks’. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 19, 397–418.
Hastenrath, S., 1966: ‘On general circulation and energy budget in the area of the Central American Seas’. J. Atmos. Sci., 23, 604–711.
Hastenrath, S., 1967: ‘Rainfall distribution and regime in Central America’. Archiv Meteor. Geophys. Bioklim., Ser. B, 15, 201–241.
Hastenrath, S., 1970: ‘Lake-level changes and recent climatic fluctuations in Central America’. Preprints Symposium Tropical Meteorology, Honolulu, Hawaii, Amer. Meteor. Soc, L IX 1–4.
Hastenrath, S., 1976: ‘Variations in low-latitude circulation and extreme climatic events in the tropical Americas’. J. Atmos. Sci., 33, 202–215.
Hastenrath, S., 1978: ‘On modes of tropical circulation and climate anomalies’. J. Atmos. Sci., 35, 2222–2231.
Hastenrath, S., 1983: ‘Comments on “correlation between the tropical Atlantic trade winds and precipitation in Northeastern Brazil”’. J. Climatol., 3, 207–209.
Hastenrath, S., 1984: ‘Interannual variability and annual cycle: mechanisms of circulation and climate in the tropical Atlantic sector’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 112, 1097–1107.
Hastenrath, S., 1990a: ‘The relationship of highly reflective clouds to tropical climate anomalies’. J. Climate, 3, 353–365.
Hastenrath, S., 1990b: ‘Prediction of Northeast Brazil rainfall anomalies’. J. Climate, 3, 893–904.
Hastenrath, S., 1990c: ‘Decadal-scale changes of the circulation in the tropical Atlantic sector associated with Sahel drought’. Int. J. Climatol., 10, 459–472.
Hastenrath, S., Castro, L.-C, Aceituno, P., 1987: ‘The Southern Oscillation in the tropical Atlantic sector’. Contributions Atmos. Physics, 60, 447–463.
Hastenrath, S., Greischar, L., 1989: ‘Climatic atlas of the Indian Ocean, part 3. Upper-ocean structure’. University of Wisconsin Press, 273 pp.
Hastenrath, S., Heller, L., 1977: ‘Dynamics of climate hazards in Northeast Brazil’. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 103, 77–92.
Hastenrath, S., Kaczmarczyk, E. B., 1981: ‘On spectra and coherence of tropical climate anomalies’. Tellus, 33, 453–462.
Hastenrath, S., Lamb, P. J., 1977a: Climatic atlas of the tropical Atlantic and eastern Pacific Oceans. The University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, Wisconsin, 113 pp
Hastenrath, S., Lamb, P. J., 1977b: ‘Some aspects of circulation and climate over the eastern equatorial Atlantic’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 106, 1280–1287.
Hastenrath, S., Lamb, P. J., 1978a: Heat budget atlas of the tropical Atlantic and Eastern Pacific Oceans. The University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, Wis., 103 pp.
Hastenrath, S., Lamb, P. J., 1978b: ‘On the dynamics and climatology of surface flow over the equatorial oceans’. Tellus, 30, 436–448.
Hastenrath, S., Lamb, P., 1979: Climatic atlas of the Indian Ocean, part 1. Surface climate and atmospheric circulation. part 2. The oceanic heat budget. University of Wisconsin Press, 116 and 110 pp.
Hastenrath, S., Lamb, P. J., 1980: ‘On the heat budget of hydrosphere and atmosphere in the Indian Ocean’. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 10, 694–708.
Hastenrath, S., Rosen, A., 1983: ‘Patterns of India monsoon rainfall anomalies’. Tellus, 35A, 324–331.
Hastenrath, S., Wendland, W., 1979: ‘On the secular variation of storms in the tropical North Atlantic and Eastern Pacific’. Tellus, 31, 28–38.
Hastenrath, S., Wu, M.-C, 1982: ‘Oscillations of upper-air circulation and anomalies in the surface climate of the tropics’. Archiv Meteor. Geophys. Bioklim., Ser. B, 31, 1–37.
Hastenrath, S., Wu, M.-C, Chu, P.-S., 1984: ‘Towards the monitoring and prediction of Northeast Brazil droughts’. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 110, 411–425.
Hastings, P. A., 1990: ‘Southern Oscillation influences on tropical cyclone activity in the Australian/Southwest Pacific region’. Int. J. Climatol., 10, 291–298.
Henning, D., 1967: ‘Zur Interpretation eines Zirkulationskriteriums’. Archiv Meteor. Geophys. Bioklim., Ser. A, 16, 126–136.
Hildebrandsson, H., 1897, 1899, 1990, 1910, 1914: ‘Les centres d’action de l’atmosphère, I-V’. Kongliga Svenska Vetenskaps-Akademiens Handlingar, vol. 29, no. 3, 36 pp.;
Hildebrandsson, H., 1897, 1899, 1990, 1910, 1914: ‘Les centres d’action de l’atmosphère, I-V’. Kongliga Svenska Vetenskaps-Akademiens Handlingar, vol. 32, no. 4, 22 pp.;
Hildebrandsson, H., 1897, 1899, 1990, 1910, 1914: ‘Les centres d’action de l’atmosphère, I-V’. Kongliga Svenska Vetenskaps-Akademiens Handlingar, vol. 45, no. 2, 11 pp;
Hildebrandsson, H., 1897, 1899, 1990, 1910, 1914: ‘Les centres d’action de l’atmosphère, I-V’. Kongliga Svenska Vetenskaps-Akademiens Handlingar, vol. 45, no. 11, 22 pp;
Hildebrandsson, H., 1897, 1899, 1990, 1910, 1914: ‘Les centres d’action de l’atmosphère, I-V’. Kongliga Svenska Vetenskaps-Akademiens Handlingar, vol. 51, No. 8, 16 pp.
Hirst, A. C., Hastenrath, S., 1983a: ‘Atmosphere-ocean mechanism of climate anomalies in the Angola - tropical Atlantic sector’. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 13, 1146–1157.
Hirst, A. C., Hastenrath, S., 1983b: ‘Diagnostics of hydrometeorological anomalies in the Zaïre (Congo) basin’. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 109, 879–890.
Hisard, P., 1980: ‘Observation de réponses du type “El Niño” dans l’Atlantique tropical oriental - Golfe de Guinée’. Ocean. Acta, 3, 69–78.
Hookey, P., 1970: ‘Revenge of the gods’. Weather, 25, 425–428.
Horel, J. D., Cornejo-Garrido, A. G., 1986: ‘Convection along the coast of Northern Peru during 1983: Spatial and temporal variations of clouds and rainfall’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 114, 2091–2105.
Horel, J. D. Wallace, J. M., 1981: ‘Planetary scale atmospheric phenomena associated to thermal and orographic forcing’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 109, 813–823.
Hoskins, B. J., Karoly, D., 1981: ‘The steady linear response of a spherical atmosphere to thermal and orographic forcing’. J. Atmos. Sci., 38, 1179–1198.
Houghton, R. W., 1976: ‘Circulation and hydrographie structure over the Ghana Shelf during the 1974 upwelling’. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 6, 909–924.
Hurlburt, H., Kindle, J., O’Brien, J. J., 1976: ‘A numerical simulation of the onset of El Niño’. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 6, 621–631.
Hutchinson, P., 1990: ‘The Southern Oscillation and the prediction of ‘Der’ season rainfall in Somalia’, p. 149–155 in Proceedings of Third WMO Symposium on the Meteorological Aspects of Tropical Droughts with Emphasis on Long-Range Forecasting. WMO/TD-No. 353, Geneva, Switzerland, 303 pp.
Huyer, A., Smith, R. L., Paluszkiewicz, T., 1987: ‘Coastal upwelling off Peru during normal and El Niño times, 1981–1984’. JGR-Oceans, 92, C13, 14297–14307.
Ilesanmi, O. O., 1971: ‘An empirical formulation of an ITD rainfall model for the tropics: A case study in Nigeria’. J. Appl. Meteor., 10, 882–891.
Inoue, M., O’Brien, J. J., 1984: ‘A forecasting model for the onset of a major El Niño’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 112, 2326–2337.
Inoue, M., O’Brien, J. J., 1986: ‘Predictability of the decay of the 1982/83 El Niño’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 114, 967–972.
Inoue, M., O’Brien, J. J., White, W. B., Pazan, S. E., 1987: ‘Interannual variability in the tropical Pacific for the period 1979–1982’. JGR-Oceans, 92, C11, 11671–11679.
Jackson, S. P., 1964: ‘Climatic atlas of Africa’. Government Printer, Pretoria, South Africa, 117 pp.
Jagannathan, P., 1960: ‘Seasonal forecasting in India, a review’. Meteorological Office, Poona, 79 pp.
Jagannathan, P., Bhalme, H. N., 1973: ‘Changes in the pattern of distribution of Southwest monsoon rainfall over India associated with sunspots’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 101, 691–700.
Jagannathan, P., Parthasarathy, B., 1973: ‘Trends and periodicities of rainfall over India’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 101, 371–375.
Janowiak, J. E., 1988: ‘An investigation of annual and interannual rainfall variability in Africa’. J. Climate, 1, 240–255.
Jones, P. D., Roper, S. C. B., Wigley, T. M. L., 1986: ‘Southern hemisphere surface air temperature variations: 1851–1984’. J. Climate Appl. Meteor., 25, 1213–1230.
Jones, R. H., Kearns, J. P., 1976: ‘Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil, rainfall’. J. Appl. Meteor., 15, 307–308.
Julian, P. R., Chervin, R. M., 1978: ‘A study of the Southern Oscillation and Walker circulation phenomenon’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 106, 1433–1451.
Kanamitsu, M., Krishnamurti, T. N., 1978: ‘Northern summer tropical circulations during drought and normal rainfall months’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 106, 331–347.
Keshavamurthy, R. N., 1982: ‘Response of the atmosphere to sea surface temperature anomalies over the equatorial Pacific and the teleconnections of the Southern Oscillation’. J. Atmos. Sci., 39, 1241–1259.
Keshavamurthy, R. N., 1983: ‘Southern Oscillation: further studies with a GFDL general circulation model’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 111, 1988–1997.
Kidson, J. W., 1975: ‘Tropical eigenvector analysis and Southern Oscillation’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 103, 187–196.
Kidson, J. W., 1977: ‘African rainfall and its relation to the upper air circulation’. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 103, 441–456.
Kiladis, G. N., Diaz, H. F., 1989: ‘Global climatic anomalies associated with extremes in the Southern Oscillation’. J. Climate, 2, 1069–1090.
Kiladis, G. N., Van Loon, H., 1988: ‘The Southern Oscillation. Part VII: meteorological anomalies over the Indian and Pacific sectors associated with the extremes of the Oscillation’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 116, 120–136.
Koepcke, H. W., 1961: ‘Synökologische Studien an der Westseite der peruanischen Anden’. Bonner Geographische Abhandlungen, No. 29, 320 pp.
Kok, C. J., Opsteegh, J. D., 1985: ‘Possible causes of anomalies in seasonal mean circulation patterns during the 1982–83 El Niño event’. J. Atmos. Sci., 42, 677–694.
Koteswaram, P., Alvi, S. M. A., 1969: ‘Secular trends and periodicities in rainfall at West coast stations in India’. Current Science, 38, 229–231.
Koteswaram, P., Alvi, S. M. A., 1970: ‘Secular trends and variations in rainfall of Indian regions’. Idöjárás, 74, 176–183.
Kousky, V. E., 1979: ‘Frontal influences on Northeast Brazil’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 107, 1140–1153.
Kousky, V. E, 1980: ‘Diurnal rainfall variations in Northeast Brazil’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 108, 488–498.
Kousky, V. E., Chu, P.-S., 1978: ‘Fluctuations in annual rainfall for Northeast Brazil’. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 57, 457–465.
Kousky, V. E., Kagano, M. T., Cavalcanti, I. F. A., 1984: ‘The Southern Oscillation: oceanic-atmospheric circulation changes and related rainfall anomalies’. Tellus, 36A, 490–504.
Kousky, V. E., Moura, A. D., 1981: ‘Previsão de precipitaçaõ no Nordeste do Brazil: o aspecto dinâmico’. IV Simpósio Brasileiro de Hidrologia e Recursos Hidricos, Nov. 1981, Fortaleza.
Kraus, E. B., 1977a: ‘Subtropical droughts and cross-equatorial energy transports’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 105, 1009–1018.
Kraus, E. B., 1977b: ‘The seasonal excursion of the intertropical convergence zone’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 105, 1052–1055.
Kraus, E. B., Hanson, H. P., 1983: ‘Air-sea interaction as a propagator of equatorial ocean surface temperature anomalies’. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 13, 130–138.
Kung, E. C., Sharif, T. A., 1980: ‘Regression forecasting of the onset of the Indian summer monsoon with antecedent upper air conditions’. J. Appl. Meteor., 19, 370–380.
Kung, E. C. Sharif, T. A., 1982: ‘Long-range forecasting of the Indian summer monsoon onset and rainfall with upper air parameters and sea surface temperature’. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 60, 672–781.
Lagos, P., Mitchell, T. P., Wallace, J. M., 1987: ‘Remote forcing of sea surface temperature in the El Niño region’. JGR-Oceans, 92, C13, 14291–14296.
Lamb, P. J., 1978a: ‘Case studies of tropical Atlantic surface circulation patterns during recent Sub-Saharan weather anomalies: 1967 and 1968’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 106, 482–491.
Lamb, P. J., 1978b: ‘Large-scale tropical Atlantic circulation patterns associated with Subsaharan weather anomalies’. Tellus, 30, 240–251.
Lamb, P. J., 1979: ‘Some perspectives on climate and climate dynamics’. Progress Phys. Geogr., 3, 215–235.
Lamb, P. J., 1980: ‘Sahelian drought’. New Zealand J. Geogr., 68, 12–16.
Lamb, P. J., 1982a: ‘Persistence of Subsaharan drought’. Nature, 299, 46–48.
Lamb, P. J., 1982b: ‘Comments on “West African rainfall variations and tropical Atlantic sea surface temperatures”’. Climate Monitor, 11, 46–49.
Lamb, P. J., 1983a: ‘West African water vapor variations between recent contrasting Subsaharan rainy seasons’. Tellus, 35A, 198–212.
Lamb, P. J., 1983b: ‘Sub-Saharan rainfall update for 1982: continued drought’. J. Climatol., 3, 419–422.
Lamb, P. J., 1985: ‘Rainfall in Subsaharan West Africa during 1941–83’. Zeitschrift für Gletscherkunde und Glazialgeologie, 21, 131–139.
Lamb, P. J., Peppler, R. A., 1990: ‘West Africa’. Chapter 7 in Glantz, M. H., Katz, R. W., Nicholls, N., eds.: ENSO teleconnections linking worldwide climate anomalies. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, in press.
Landsberg, H. E., 1975a: ‘Sahel drought: change of climate or part of climate’. Archiv Meteor. Geophys. Bioklim., Ser. B. 23, 193–200.
Landsberg, H. E., 1975b: ‘Drought, a recurrent element of climate’. Drought, WMO Special Environmental Report No. 5 (WMO-No. 403), 41–90.
Lau, K. M., Chan, P. H., 1983a: ‘Short-term climate variability and atmospheric teleconnection from satellite-observed outgoing longwave radiation, part I: simultaneous relationships’. J. Atmos. Sci., 40, 2735–2750.
Lau, K. M., Chan, P. H., 1983b: ‘Short-term climate variability and atmospheric teleconnection from satellite-observed outgoing longwave radiation: part II: lagged correlations’. J. Atmos. Sci., 40, 2751–2767.
Lau, K. M., Li, M. T., 1984: ‘The monsoon of East Asia and its global associations — a survey’. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 65, 114–125.
Lettau, H. H., 1967: ‘Small to large-scale features of boundary layer structure over mountain slopes’, pp. 1072 in: Reiter, E. R., Rasmusson, J. L., eds., Proceedings of the Symposium on Mountain Meteorology, June 1967, Fort Collins, Colo., Department of Atmospheric Science, Colorado State University, Atmospheric Science Paper No. 122, 221 pp.
Lindesay, J. A., 1988: ‘South African rainfall, the Southern Oscillation and a Southern hemisphere semiannual cycle’. J. Climatol., 8, 17–30.
Lindesay, J.A., Jury, G.R., 1991: ‘Atmospheric circulation controls and characteristics of a flood event in central South Africa.’ Int. J. Climatol., 10, 413–424.
Lockyer, N., Lockyer, W. J. S., 1902a: ‘On some phenomena which suggest a short period of solar and meteorological changes’. Proc. Roy. Soc. London, 70, 500–504.
Lockyer, N., Lockyer, W. J. S., 1902b: ‘On the similarity of the short-period pressure variation over large areas’. Proc. Roy. Soc London, 71, 134–136.
Lockyer, N., Lockyer, W. J. S., 1904: ‘The behavior of the short-period atmospheric pressure variation over large areas’. Proc. Roy. Soc. London, 73, 457–470.
Lockyer, W. J. S., 1906: ‘Barometric variations of long duration over large areas’. Proc. Roy. Soc. A, 78, 43–60.
Lough, J. M., 1986: ‘Tropical Atlantic sea surface temperatures and rainfall variations in Subsaharan Africa and Northeast Brazil’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 114, 561–570.
Luther, D. S., Harrison, D. E., 1983: ‘Zonal winds in the central equatorial Pacific and El Niño’. Science, 222, 327–330.
Mangum, L. J., Hayes, S. P., Toole, J. M., 1986: ‘Eastern Pacific Ocean circulation near the onset of the 1982–1983 El Niño’. JGR-Oceans, 91, C7, 8428–8436.
Markham, C. G., 1967: ‘Climatol.ogical aspects of drought in Northeastern Brazil’. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Geography, University of California, Berkeley, 352 pp.
Markham, C. G., 1974: ‘Apparent periodicities in rainfall at Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil’. J. Appl. Meteor., 13, 176–179.
Markham, C. G., McLain, D. R., 1977: ‘Sea surface temperature related to rain in Ceará, Northeastern Brazil’. Nature, 265, 320–323.
McBride, J. L., Nicholls, N., 1983: ‘Seasonal relationships between Australian rainfall and the Southern Oscillation’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 111, 1998–2004.
McCreary, J. P., 1976: ‘Eastern tropical ocean response to changing wind systems: with application to El Niño’. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 6, 632–645.
McCreary, J. P., 1983: ‘A model of tropical ocean-atmosphere interaction’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 111, 370–387.
McCreary, J. P., Anderson, D. L. T., 1984: ‘A simple model of El Niño and the Southern Oscillation’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 112, 934–946.
McCreary, J. P., Picaut, J., Moore, D. W., 1984: ‘Effects of remote annual forcing in the eastern tropical Atlantic Ocean’. J. Mar. Res., 42, 45–81.
McPhaden, M. J., Freitag, H. P., Hayes, S. P., Taft, B. A., Chen, Z., Wyrtki, K., 1988: ‘The response of the Equatorial Pacific Ocean to a westerly wind burst in May 1986’. JGR-Oceans, 93, C9, 10589–10603.
Meehl, G. A., Van Loon, H., 1979: ‘The see-saw in winter temperatures between Greenland and Northern Europe, Part 3: Teleconnections with lower latitudes’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 107, 1095–1106.
Merle, J., 1980: ‘Variabilité thermique annuelle et interannuelle de l’Océan Atlantique equatorial Est. L’hypothèse d’un “El Niño” Atlantique’. Ocean. Acta, 3, 209–220.
Meyers, G., Donguy, J. R., 1984: ‘The North Equatorial Countercurrent and heat storage in the Western Pacific Ocean during 1982–83’. Nature, 312, 258–260.
Miles, M. K., Folland, C. K., 1974: ‘Changes in the latitude of the climatic zones of the Northern hemisphere’. Nature, 252, 616.
Miron, O., Tyson, P. D., 1984: ‘Wet and dry conditions and pressure anomaly fields over South Africa and the adjacent oceans, 1963–79’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 112, 2127–2132.
Mitchum, G. T., 1987: ‘Trade wind fluctuations associated with the El Niño - Southern Oscillation events’. JGR-Oceans, 92, C9, 9464–9468.
Mooley, D. A., Paolino, D. A., 1988a: ‘Relationship of the Indian monsoon rainfall to the Northern hemisphere 700 mb height tendency’. J. Climatol., 8, 499–509.
Mooley, D. A., Paolino, D. A., 1988b: ‘A predictive monsoon signal in the surface level thermal field over India’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 116, 256–264.
Mooley, D. A., Parthasarathy, B., 1983: ‘Variability of the Indian summer monsoon and tropical circulation features’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 111, 967–978.
Mooley, D. A., Parthasarathy, B., 1984a: ‘Indian summer monsoon and the East Equatorial Pacific sea surface temperature’. Atmosphere-Ocean, 22, 23–35.
Mooley, D. A., Parthasarathy, B., 1984b: ‘Fluctuations in all-India summer monsoon rainfall during 1871–1978’. Climatic Change, 6, 286–301.
Mooley, D. A., Parthasarathy, B., Sontakke, N. A., Munot, A. A., 1981: ‘Annual rain-water over India, its variability and impact on the seasons’. J. Climatol., 1, 167–186.
Moore, D. W., Hisard, P., McCreary, J. P., Merle, J., O’Brien, J. J., Picaut, J., Verstraate, J. M., Wunsch, C, 1978: ‘Equatorial adjustment in the Eastern Atlantic’. Geophys. Research Letters, 5, 637–640.
Morlière, A., Rebert, J. O., 1986: ‘Rainfall shortage and El Niño/Southern Oscillation in New Caledonia, Southwestern Pacific’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 114, 1131–1137.
Motha, R. P., Leduc, S. K., Steyaert, L. T., Sakamoto, C. M., Strommen, N. D., 1980: ‘Precipitation patterns in West Africa’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 109, 1567–1578.
Moura, A. D., Kagano, M. T., 1986: ‘A distribuiçaõ da precipitaçaõ para os anos extremos do Nordeste do Brazil’. Revista Brasileira de Meteorología, 1, 1–10.
Moura, A. D., Shukla, J., 1981: ‘On the dynamics of droughts in Northeast Brazil: observations, theory, and numerical experiments with a general circulation model’. J. Atmos. Sci., 38, 2653–2675.
Mukherjee, B. K., Indira, K., Reddy, R. S., Ramana Murty, B. V., 1985: ‘Quasi-biennial oscillation in stratospheric zonal wind and Indian summer monsoon’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 113, 1421–1424.
Murakami, T., Sumathipala, W. L., 1989: ‘Westerly bursts during the 1982/83 ENSO’. J. Climate, 2, 71–85.
Murphy, R. C, 1926: ‘Oceanic and climatic phenomena along the West coast of South America during 1925’. Geogr. Rev., 16, 26–54.
Namias, J., 1969: ‘Seasonal interactions between the North Pacific Ocean and the atmosphere during the 1960’s’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 97, 173–192.
Namias, J., 1972: ‘Influence of Northern hemisphere general circulation on drought in Northeast Brazil’. Tellus, 24, 336–343.
Namias, J., 1973: ‘Response of the Equatorial Countercurrent to the subtropical atmosphere’. Science, 181, 1244–1245.
Namias, J., Cayan, D. R., 1984: ‘El Niño: the implications for forecasting’. Oceanus, 27, no. 2, 41–47.
Navato, A. R., Newell, R. E., Hsiung, J. C., Billing, C. B., 1981: ‘Tropospheric mean temperature and its relationship to the oceans and atmospheric aerosols’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 109, 405–416.
Newell, R. E., 1980: ‘Climate and the ocean’. Amer. Scientist, 67, 405–416.
Newell, R. E., Kidson, J. W., 1984: ‘African mean wind changes between Sahelian wet and dry periods’. J. Climatol., 4, 27–33.
Newell, R. E., Selkirk, R., Ebisuzaki, W., 1982: ‘The Southern Oscillation: sea surface temperature and wind relationships in a 100-year data set’. J. Climatol., 2, 357–373.
Newell, R. E., Weare, B. C., 1976a: ‘Factors governing tropospheric mean temperature’. Science, 194, 1413–1414.
Newell, R. E., Weare, B. C., 1976b: ‘Ocean temperature and large-scale atmospheric variations’. Nature, 262, 40–41.
Newton, C. W., ed., 1972: ‘Meteorology of the Southern hemisphere’. Amer. Meteor. Soc., Monographs, 13, No. 35, 263 pp.
Nicholls, N., 1978: ‘Air-sea interaction and the quasi-biennial oscillation’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 106, 1505–1508.
Nicholls, N., 1981: ‘Air-sea interaction and the possibility of long-range weather prediction in the Indonesian Archipelago’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 109, 2435–2443.
Nicholls, N., 1988a: ‘Low latitude volcanic eruptions and the El Niño-Southern Oscillation’. J. Climatol., 8, 91–95.
Nicholls, N., 1988b: ‘El Niño-Southern Oscillation and rainfall variability’. J. Climate, 1, 418–421.
Nicholls, N., 1990: ‘Low latitude volcanic eruptions and the El Niño/Southern Oscillation, a reply’. Int. J. Climatol., 10, 425–429.
Nicholson, S. E., 1979: ‘Revised rainfall series for the West African subtropics’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 107, 620–623.
Nicholson, S. E., 1980a: ‘The nature of rainfall fluctuations in subtropical West Africa’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 108, 473–487.
Nicholson, S. E., 1980b: ‘Saharan climates in historic times’, p. 173–200 in Williams, M. A. J. and Faure, H. eds.: The Sahara and the Nile, Balkema, Rotterdam, 607 pp.
Nicholson, S. E., 1981: ‘Rainfall and atmospheric circulation during drought and wetter periods in West Africa’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 109, 2191–2208.
Nicholson, S. E., 1983: ‘Sub-Saharan rainfall in the years 1976–80: evidence of continued drought’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 111, 1646–1654.
Nicholson, S. E., 1985: ‘Subsaharan rainfall 1981–84’. J. Climate Appl. Meteor., 24, 1311–1324.
Nicholson, S. E., 1986: ‘The spatial coherence of African rainfall anomalies: interhemispheric teleconnections’. J. Climate Appl. Meteor., 25, 1365–1388.
Niebauer, H. J., 1988: ‘Effects of El Niño - Southern Oscillation and North Pacific weather patterns on interannual variability in the subarctic Bering Sea’. JGR-Oceans, 93, C5, 5051–5068.
Nobre, P., 1984: ‘Fontes de calor nos trópicos e escoamentos anómalos de larga escala associadas com anomalías de precipitação no Nordeste do Brasil’. Institute Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais, Publicação No. INPE-3211-TDL/175, Saõ José dos Campos, S.P., 90 pp.
Nobre, P., Moura, A. D., 1984: ‘Large scale tropical heat sources and global atmosphere energy propagation associated with droughts in Northeast Brazil’, pp. 83–86 in: Extended abstracts of papers presented at the second WMO Symposium on Meteorological Aspects of Tropical Droughts. September 1984. World Meteorological Organization, TMP Report Series No. 15, Geneva, Switzerland, 134 pp.
Normand, C. W. B., 1953: ‘Monsoon seasonal forecasting’. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 79, 463–473.
O’Brien, J. J., Adamec, D., Moore, D. W., 1978: ‘A simple model of upwelling in the Gulf of Guinea’. Geophys. Research Letters, 5, 641–644.
O’Brien, J. J., Busalacchi, A. J., Kindle, J., 1981: ‘Ocean models of El Niño’, pp. 159–212 in: Glantz, M. H., Thompson, J. D. (eds.), Resource management and environmental uncertainty: lessons from coastal upwelling fisheries. Wiley, Somerset, N. J., 491 pp.
Ogallo, L., 1979: ‘Rainfall variability in Africa’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 107, 1133–1139.
Ogallo, L. J., 1988: ‘Relationships between seasonal rainfall in East Africa and the Southern Oscillation’. J. Climatol., 8, 31–43.
Ogallo, L. J., 1989: ‘The spatial and temporal patterns of the East African seasonal rainfall derived from the principal component analysis’. J. Climatol., 9, 145–167.
Ogallo, L. J., Janowiak, J. E., Halpert, M. S., 1988: ‘Teleconnection between seasonal rainfall over East Africa and global sea surface temperature anomalies’. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 66, 807–822.
Oliveira, L. L. de, 1982: ‘Zonas de convergància no Atlantico Sul e suas influenciás no regime de precipitaçaõ no Nordeste do Brazil’. Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais, Publicação No. INPE-2307-TDL/074, 103 pp.
Opsteegh, J. D., Van den Dool, H. M., 1980: ‘Seasonal differences in the stationary response of a linearized primitive equation model: prospects for long-range forecasting’. J. Atmos. Sci., 37, 2169–2185.
Otterman, J., 1974: ‘Baring high-albedo soils by overgrazing: A hypothesized decertification mechanism’. Science, 186, 531–553.
Owen, J. A., Folland, C. K., 1988: ‘Modelling the influence of sea-surface temperatures on tropical rainfall’. pp. 141–153 in Gregory, S., ed.: Recent climatic change; a regional approach. Belhaven Press, London, 326 pp.
Palmer, T. N., 1986: ‘Influence of the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans on Sahel rainfall’. Nature, 322, 251–253.
Palutikof, J. P., Lough, J. M., Farmer, G., 1981: ‘Senegal River runoff’. Nature, 293, 414.
Pant, G. B., Hisgane, L. S., 1988: ‘Climatic changes in and around the Rajasthan Desert during the 20th century’. J. Climatol., 8, 391–401.
Pant, G. B., Parthasarathy, B., 1981: ‘Some aspects of an association between the Southern Oscillation and Indian summer monsoon’. Archiv Meteor. Geophys. Bioklim., Ser. B, 29, 245–252.
Parthasarathy, B., Dhar, O. N., 1974: ‘Secular variations of regional rainfall over India’. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 100, 245–257.
Parthasarathy, B., Mooley, D. A., 1978: ‘Some features of a long homogeneous series of Indian summer monsoon rainfall’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 106, 771–781.
Parthasarathy, B., Pant, G. B., 1984: ‘The spatial and temporal relationships between the Indian summer monsoon rainfall and the Southern Oscillation’. Tellus, 36A, 269–277.
Parthasarathy, B., Sontakke, N. A., Monot, A. A., Kothawale, D. R., 1987: ‘Droughts/floods in the summer monsoon season over different meteorological subdivisions of India for the period 1871–1984’. J. Climatol., 7, 57–70.
Parthasarathy, B., Sontakke, N. A., Monot, A. A., Kothawale, D. R., 1990: ‘Vagaries of Indian Monsoon rainfall and its relationship with regional/global circulations’. Mausam, 41, 301–308.
Pazan, S. E., White, W. B., 1987: ‘Short-term climatic variability in the volume budget of the western tropical Pacific Ocean during 1979–82’. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 17, 440–454.
Philander, S. G. H., 1983: ‘El Niño Southern Oscillation phenomena’. Nature, 302, 295–301.
Philander, S. G., 1990: El Niño, La Niña, and the Southern Oscillation.’Academic Press, San Diego, New York, Berkeley, Boston, 293 pp.
Picaut, J., 1983: ‘Propagation of the seasonal upwelling in the Eastern Equatorial Atlantic’. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 13, 18–37.
Quenouille, M. H., 1952: Associated measurements. Butterworths, London, 242 pp.
Quinn, W. H., 1974: ‘Monitoring and predicting El Niño invasions’. J. Appl. Meteor., 13, 825–830.
Quinn, W. H., 1976: ‘An improved approach for following and predicting Equatorial Pacific changes and El Niño’. Proceedings of the NOAA Climate Diagnostics Workshop, 4–5 Nov., 1976. Washington, D.C., article 21, pp. 1–15.
Quinn, W. H., Burt, W. V., 1970: ‘Prediction of abnormally heavy precipitation over the Equatorial Pacific Dry Zone’. J. Appl. Meteor., 9, 20–28.
Quinn, W. H., Burt, W. V., 1972: ‘Use of the Southern Oscillation in weather prediction’. J. Appl. Meteor., 11, 616–628.
Quinn, W. H., Neal, V. T., Antunez de Mayolo, S. E., 1987: ‘El Niño occurrences over the past four and a half centuries’. JGR-Oceans, 92, C13, 14449–14461.
Quinn, W. H., Zopf, D. O., Short, K. S., Kuo Yang, R. T. W., 1978: ‘Historical trends and statistics of the Southern Oscillation, El Niño, and Indonesian droughts’. Fishery Bulletin, 76, 663–678.
Raghavan, K., Puranik, P. V., Mujumdar, V. R., Ismail, P. M. M., Paul, D. K., 1978: ‘Interaction between the Arabian Sea and the Indian monsoon’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 106, 719–724.
Raman, C. R. V., Maliekal, J. A., 1985: ‘A “northern oscillation” relating northern hemispheric pressure anomalies and the Indian summer monsoon’. Nature, 314, 430–432.
Ramaswamy, C., Pareek, R. S., 1978: ‘The Southwest monsoon over India and its teleconnections with the middle and upper tropospheric flow patterns over the Southern hemisphere’. Tellus, 30, 126–135.
Ramesh Babu, V., Sastry, J. S., 1984: ‘Summer cooling in the East Central Arabian Sea – a process of dynamic response to the Southwest monsoon’. Mausam, 35, 17–26.
Ramos, R. P. L., 1975: ‘Precipitation characteristics in the Northeast Brazil dry region’. J. Geophys. Res., 80, 1665–1678.
Rao, K. N., 1964: ‘Seasonal forecasting for India’, pp. 17–30 in WMO Technical Note no. 66, WMO no. 162, TP 79, Geneva.
Rao, V. B., da Silva Marques, V., 1984: ‘Water vapor characteristics over Northeast Brazil during two contrasting years’. J. Climate Appl. Meteor., 23, 440–444.
Rao, V. B., da Silva Marques, V., Bonatti, J. P., 1984: ‘On the possibility of barotropic instability over Northeast Brazil’. Tellus, 36A, 207–210.
Rao, V. B., Satyamurty, P., de Brito, J. I. B., 1986: ‘On the 1983 drought in Northeast Brasil’. J. Climatol., 6, 43–51.
Rasmusson, E. M., 1984: ‘El Niño: The ocean/atmosphere connection’. Oceanus, 27, 5–12.
Rasmusson, E. M., Carpenter, T. H., 1982: ‘Variations in tropical sea surface temperature and surface wind fields associated with the Southern Oscillations/El Niño’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 110, 354–384.
Rasmusson, E. M., Carpenter, T. H., 1983: ‘The relationship between Eastern Equatorial Pacific sea surface temperatures and rainfall over India and Sri Lanka’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 111, 517–528.
Rasmusson, E. M., Wallace, J. M., 1983: ‘Meteorological aspects of the El Niño/Southern Oscillation’. Science, 222, 1195–1202.
Rasool, S. I., 1982: ‘Are Sahelian droughts predictable?’ Nature, 297, 19–20.
Ratisbona, L. R., 1976: ‘The climate of Brazil’, pp. 219–269, in World Survey of Climatology, vol. 12, Elsevier, New York, 532 pp.
Reesinck, J. J. M., 1952: ‘Some remarks on monsoon forecasting for Java’. Kementerian Perhubungan Djawatan Meteorologi dan Geofisiki, Djakarta, Indonesia, Verhandelingen No. 44, 22 pp.
Reiter, E. R., 1979: ‘Trade-wind variability, Southern Oscillation, and quasi-biennial oscillation’. Archiv Meteor. Geophys. Bioklim., Ser. A, 28, 113–126.
Reverdin, G., Cadet, D. L., Gutzler, D., 1986: ‘Interannual displacement of convection and surface circulation over the equatorial Indian Ocean’. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 112, 43–67.
Rienecker, M. M., Mooers, C. N. K., 1986: ‘The 1982–1983 El Niño signal off northern California’. JGR-Oceans, 91, C5, 6597–6608.
Ripley, E. A., 1976a: ‘Drought in the Sahara: insufficient biogeophysical feedback?’ Science, 191, 100.
Ripley, E. A., 1976b: ‘Comments on the paper “Dynamics of deserts and drought in the Sahel” by J. G. Charney’. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 102, 466–467.
Robinson, M., Bauer, R. A., Schroeder, E., 1979: ‘Atlas of North Atlantic - Indian Ocean mean temperatures and mean salinities of the surface layer’. Naval Oceanographie Office, NOO RP-18, NSTL Station, Bay St. Louis, Mississippi, 39522, 234 pp.
Rodhe, H., Virji, H., 1976: ‘Trends and periodicities in East African rainfall data’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 104, 307–315.
Rogers, J. C, 1984: ‘The association between the North Atlantic Oscillation and the Southern Oscillation in the Northern hemisphere’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 12, 1999–2005.
Rogers, J. C., 1988: ‘Precipitation variability in the Caribbean and tropical Americas associated with the Southern Oscillation’. J. Climate, 1, 172–182.
Rogers, J. C, Van Loon, H., 1979: ‘The see-saw in winter temperature between Greenland and Northern Europe, Part 2: some oceanic and atmospheric effects in middle and high latitudes’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 107, 509–519.
Ropelewski, C. F., Robock, A., Matson, M., 1984: ‘Comments on “An apparent relationship between Eurasian spring snow cover and the advance period of the Indian summer monsoon’”. J. Climate Appl. Meteor., 23, 341–342.
Ropelewski, C. F., Halpert, M. S., 1986: ‘North American precipitation and temperature patterns associated with the El Niño/Southern Oscillation’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 114, 2352–2362.
Ropelewski, C. F., Halpert, M. S., 1987: ‘Global and regional scale precipitation patterns associated with the El Niño/Southern Oscillation’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 115, 1606–1626.
Ropelewski, C. F., Halpert, M. S., 1989: ‘Precipitation patterns associated with the high index phase of the Southern Oscillation’. J. Climate, 2, 268–284.
Ropelewski, C. F., Jones, P. D., 1987: ‘An extension of the Tahiti-Darwin Southern Oscillation index’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 115, 2161–2165.
Rowntree, P. R., 1972: ‘The influence of tropical East Pacific Ocean temperature on the atmosphere’. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 98, 290–321.
Sadler, J. C, 1975: ‘The upper-tropospheric circulation over the global tropics’. Department of Meteorology, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii, UHMET-75-05, 35 pp.
Sampaio Ferraz, J. de, 1925: ‘Causas provaveis das secas do Nordeste Brasileiro’. Ministerio de Agricultura, Directoría de Meteorologia, Rio de Janeiro, 12 pp.
Sampaio Ferraz, J. de, 1929: ‘Sir Gilbert Walker’s formula for Ceará droughts: suggestions for its physical explanation’. Meteor. Mag., 64, 81–84.
Sardeshmukh, P. D., Hoskins, B. J., 1985: ‘Vorticity balances in the tropics during the 1982–83 El Niño - Southern Oscillation event’. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 111, 261–278.
Schell, I. I., 1965: ‘The origin and possible prediction of the fluctuations in the Peru Current and upwelling’. J. Geophys. Res., 70, 5529–5540.
Schickedanz, P. T., Bowen, E. G., 1977: ‘The computation of climatological power spectra’. J. Appl. Meteor., 16, 359–367.
Schmidt, F. H., van der Vecht, J., 1952: ‘East monsoon fluctuations in Java and Madoera during the period 1880–1940’. Kementerian Perhubungan Djawatan Meteorologi dan Geofisiki, Djakarta, Indonesia, Verhandelingen No. 43, 36 pp.
Schmidt-ten Hoopen, K. J., Schmidt, F. H., 1951: ‘On climatic variations in Indonesia’. Kementerian Perhubungan Djawatan Meteorologi dan Geofisiki, Djakarta, Indonesia, Verhandelingen, No. 41, 43 pp.
Schopf, P. S., Harrison, D. E., 1983: ‘On equatorial waves and El Niño, I: influence of initial state on wave-induced currents and warming’. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 13, 936–948.
Schove, D. J., Berlage, H. P., 1965: ‘Pressure anomalies in the Indian Ocean area 1796–1960’. Geofisica pura e applicata, 61, 219–251.
Schregardus, M. W. F., 1938: ‘Sea-surface temperatures on some steamer routes in Netherlands India, third series 1933–1937’. Koninklijk Magnetisch en Meteorologisch Observatorium te Batavia, Verhandelingen. No. 28, 35 pp.
Schreiber, R. W., Schreiber, E. A., 1984: ‘Central Pacific seabirds and the Southern Oscillation: 1982 to 1983’. Science, 225, 713–716.
Schiitte, K., 1968: ‘Untersuchungen zur Meteorologie und Klimatologie des El Niño - Phänomens in Ecuador and Nordperu’. Bonner Meteorologische Abhandlungen, no. 9, 152 pp.
Schweigger, E., 1959: Die Westküste Südamerikas im Bereich des Perustroms. Keysersche Verlagsbuchhandlung, Heidelberg und München, 513 pp., plus maps and photos.
Schweigger, E., 1961: ‘Anomalías térmicas en el Océano Pacífico Oriental y su pronóstico’. Boletìn de la Sociedad Geogáfica de Lima, 78, 3–50.
Semazzi, F. H. M., Mehta, V., Sud, Y. C., 1988: ‘An investigation of the relationship between sub-Saharan rainfall and global sea surface temperatures’. Atmosphere-Ocean, 26, 118–138.
Serra, A., 1956: ‘As Secas do Nordeste’. Boletím Geográfico, 14, 269–270.
Servain, J., Picaut, J., Merle, J., 1982: ‘Evidence of remote forcing in the equatorial Atlantic Ocean’. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 12, 457–463.
Shapiro, L. J., 1982: ‘Hurricane climatic fluctuations, part 1: patterns and cycles’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 110, 1007–1013.
Shinoda, M., 1989: ‘Annual rainfall variability and its interhemispheric coherence in the semi-arid region of tropical Africa: data updated to 1987.’ J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 67, 555–564.
Shinoda, M., 1990: ‘Long-term variability of the tropical African rainbelt and its relation to rainfall in the Sahel and northern Kalahari.’ J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 68, 19–35.
Shukla, J., 1975: ‘Effect of Arabian Sea surface temperature anomaly on Indian summer monsoons: a numerical experiment with the GFDL model’. J. Atmos. Sci., 32, 505–511.
Shukla, J., 1986: ‘Interannual variability of monsoons’, p. 399–463 in Fein, J., Stephens, P., eds., Monsoons, Wiley Interscience Publishers, New York, London, Sidney, Toronto, 632 pp.
Shukla, J., Paolino, D. A., 1983: ‘The Southern Oscillation and long-range forecasting of the summer monsoon rainfall over India’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 111, 1830–1837.
Sikdar, D. N., Eisner, J. B., 1987: ‘Large-scale circulation departures related to wet episodes in northeast Brazil.’ Quat. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 113, 567–580.
Smagorinsky, J., 1963: ‘General circulation experiments with the primitive equations’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 91, 99–164.
Stone, P. H., Chervin, R. M., 1984: ‘The influence of ocean surface temperature gradient and continentality on the Walker Circulation, part 2: prescribed global changes’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 112, 1524–1534.
Subbaramayya, I., 1968: ‘The interrelations of monsoon rainfall in different subdivisions of India’. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 46, 77–84.
Sud, Y. C, Fennessy, M., 1982: ‘A study of the influence of surface albedo on July circulation in semi-arid regions’. J. Climatol, 2, 105–125.
Suppiah, R., 1988: ‘Relationships between Indian Ocean sea surface temperature and the rainfall of Sri Lanka’. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 66, 103–111.
Taljaard, J. J., 1986: ‘Change of rainfall distribution and circulation patterns over Southern Africa in summer’. J. Climatol., 6, 579–592.
Taljaard, J. J., van Loon, H., Crutcher, H. L., Jenne, R. L., 1969: ‘Climate of the upper air: Southern Hemisphere, vol. 1, temperatures, dew points and heights at selected pressured levels’. NAVAIR 50-1C-55, Chief Naval Operations, Washington, D.C., 135 pp.
Tanaka, M., Weare, B. C., Navato, A. R., Newell, R. E., 1975: ‘Recent African rainfall patterns’. Nature, 255, 201–203.
Tang, T. Y., Weisberg, R. H., 1984: ‘On the equatorial Pacific response to the 1982/83 El Niño — Southern Oscillation event’. J. Mar. Res., 42, 809–829.
Thapliyal, V., 1982: ‘Stochastic dynamic model for long-range prediction of monsoon rainfall in peninsular India’. Mausam, 33, 399–404.
Thompson, B. W., 1965: The climate of Africa. Oxford University Press, Nairobi, New York, 132 pp.
Todorov, A. V., 1985: ‘Sahel: the changing rainfall regimes and the “normals” used for its assessment.’ J. Climate Appl. Meteor., 24, 97–107.
Toole, J. M., Borges, M. D., 1984: ‘Observations of horizontal velocities and vertical displacements in the Equatorial Pacific Ocean associated with the early stages of the 1982/83 El Niño’. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 14, 948–959.
Torrance, J. D., 1972: ‘Malawi, Rhodesia and Zambia’, ch. 13, pp. 409–460, World survey of climatology, vol. 10: Climates of Africa. Elsevier, New York, 604 pp.
Trenberth, K. E., 1976: ‘Spatial and temporal variations of the Southern Oscillation’. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 102, 639–653.
Trenberth, K. E., 1980: ‘Atmospheric quasi-biennial oscillations’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 108, 1370–1377.
Trenberth, K. E., Shea, D. J., 1987: ‘On the evolution of the Southern Oscillation’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 115, 3078–3096.
Trewartha, G. T., 1981: The Earth’s problem climates. 2nd edition, University of Wisconsin Press, 371 pp.
Troup, A. J., 1965: ‘The Southern Oscillation’. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 91, 490–506.
Tsuchiya, I., 1970: ‘Year-to-year variations over the India Equatorial Pacific region and of low and middle latitude circulations in the Southern hemisphere’. Paper in Meteorology and Geophysics, Japan, 21, no. 2, pp. 73–87.
Tyson, P. D., 1981: ‘Atmospheric circulation variations and the occurrence of extended wet and dry spells over Southern Africa’. J. Climatol., 1, 115–130.
Tyson, P. D., 1984: ‘The atmospheric modulation of extended wet and dry spells over South Africa, 1958–1978.’ J. Climatol., 4, 621–635.
Tyson, P. D., 1986: Climatic change and variability in Southern Africa. Oxford University Press, Capetown, 220 pp.
Tyson, P. D., Dyer, T. G. J., 1978: ‘The predicted above-normal rainfall in the seventies and the likelihood of droughts in the eighties in South Africa’. South African J. of Science, 74, 372–377.
Tyson, P. D., Dyer, T. G. J., Mametse, M. N., 1975: ‘Secular changes in South Africa rainfall’. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 102, 817–833.
United Nations, 1977: Desertification: its causes and consequences. Pergamon Press, Oxford, 448 pp.
Valgas, P. R. L., 1982: ‘Um estudo climatológico da zona de convergencia intertropical (ZCIT) e sua influencia sobre o Nordeste do Brazil’. Anais Hidrográficos, 39, 175–215.
Van Heerden, J., Terblanche, D. E., Schulze, G. C., 1988: ‘The Southern Oscillation and South African summer rainfall’. J. Climatol., 8, 577–597.
Van Loon, H., 1984: ‘The Southern Oscillation, Part III: associations with the trades and with the trough in the westerlies of the South Pacific Ocean’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 112, 947–954.
Van Loon, H., Labitzke, K., 1987: ‘The Southern Oscillation. Part V: the anomalies in the lower stratosphere of the Northern hemisphere in winter and a comparison with the quasi-biennial oscillation.’ Mon. Wea. Rev., 115, 357–369.
Van Loon, H., Madden, R. A., 1981: ‘The Southern Oscillation, Part I: global associations with ressure and temperature in Northern winter’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 109, 1150–1162.
Van Loon, H., Rogers, J. C., 1978: ‘The see-saw in winter temperatures between Greenland and Northern Europe, Part I: General description’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 106, 296–310.
Van Loon, H., Rogers, J. C., 1981: ‘The Southern Oscillation, part II: associations with changes in the middle troposphere in the Northern winter’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 109, 1163–1168.
Van Loon, H., Shea, D. J., 1985: ‘The Southern Oscillation. Part IV: the precursors South of 15 °S to the extremes of the Oscillation’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 113, 2063–2074.
Van Loon, H., Shea, D. J., 1987: ‘The Southern Oscillation. Part V: Anomalies of sea level pressure on the Southern Hemisphere and of Pacific sea surface temperature during the development of a warm event.’ Mon. Wea. Rev., 115, 370–379.
Verma, R. K., 1982: ‘Long-range prediction of monsoon activity: a synoptic-diagnostic study’. Mausam, 33, 35–44.
von Storch, H., Kruse, H. A., 1985: ‘The extra-tropical atmospheric response to El Niño event - a multivariate significance analysis’. Tellus, 37A, 361–377.
von Storch, H., Van Loon, H., Kiladis, G. N., 1988: ‘The Southern Oscillation. Part VIII: model sensitivity to SST anomalies in the tropical and subtropical regions of the South Pacific Convergence Zone.’ J. Climate, 1, 325–331.
Walker, G. T., 1909: ‘Correlation in seasonal variation of climate’. Mem. Indian Meteor. Dept. 20, part 6, pp. 117–124.
Walker, G. T., 1923: ‘Correlation in seasonal variations of weather VIII’. Mem. India Meteor. Dept., 24, part 4, p. 75–131.
Walker, G. T., 1924: ‘Correlation in seasonal variations of weather IX’. Mem. India Meteor. Dept., 24, part 9, pp. 275–332.
Walker, G. T., 1928a: ‘World Weather III’. Mem. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 2, no. 17, 97–106.
Walker, G. T., 1928b: ‘Ceará (Brazil) famines and the general air movement’. Beitr. Phys. d. freien Atm., 14, 88–93.
Walker, G. T., Bliss, E. W., 1930: ‘World weather IV”. Mem. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 3, no. 24, pp. 81–95.
Walker, G. T., Bliss, E. W., 1932: ‘World weather V’. Mem. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 4, no. 36, pp. 53–84.
Walker, G. T., Bliss, E. W., 1937: ‘World weather VI’. Mem. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 4, no. 39, pp. 119–139.
Walker, N. D., 1990: ‘Links between South African summer rainfall and temperature variability of the Agulhas and Benguela Current systems.’ JGR-Oceans, 95, C93, 3297–3319.
Wallace, J. M., Gutzler, D. S., 1981: ‘Teleconnexions in the geopotential height field during the Northern hemisphere winter’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 109, 784–812.
Walsh, J., 1984: ‘Snow cover and atmospheric variability’. Amer. Scientist, 12, 50–56.
Weare, B. C., 1982: ‘El Niño and tropical Pacific Ocean surface temperatures’. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 12, 17–27.
Weare, B. C, 1983: ‘Interannual variation in net heating at the surface of the tropical Pacific Ocean’. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 13, 873–885.
Weare, B. C, 1984: ‘Interannual moisture variations near the surface of the tropical Pacific Ocean’. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 110, 489–504.
Weber, G. R., 1990: ‘North Pacific circulation anomalies, El Niño, and anomalous warmth over the North American Continent in 1986–88: possible causes of the 1988 North American drought.’ Int. J. Climatol., 10, 279–290.
Webster, P. J., 1981: ‘Mechanisms determining the atmospheric response to sea surface temperature anomalies’. J. Atmos. Sci., 38, 554–571.
Winstanley, D., 1973a: ‘Recent rainfall trends in Africa, the Middle East and India’. Nature, 243, 464–465.
Winstanley, D., 1973b: ‘Rainfall patterns and the general atmospheric circulation’. Nature, 245, 190–194.
Wolter, K., 1987: ‘The Southern Oscillation in surface circulation and climate over the tropical Atlantic, Eastern Pacific, and Indian Oceans as captured by cluster analysis’. J. Climate Appl. Meteor., 26, 540–558.
Wolter, K., 1989: ‘Modes of tropical circulation, Southern Oscillation, and Sahel rainfall anomalies’. J. Climate, 2, 149–172.
Wolter, K., Hastenrath, S., 1989: ‘Annual cycle and long-term trends of circulation and climate variability over the tropical oceans’. J. Climate, 2, 1329–1351.
Wood, C. A., Lovett, R. R., 1974: ‘Rainfall, drought and the solar cycle’. Nature, 251, 594–596.
Wright, P. B., 1975: ‘An index of the Southern Oscillation’. Climatic Research Unit, University of East Anglia, Research Publication No. 4, 22 pp.
Wright, P. B., 1977: ‘The Southern Oscillation - patterns and mechanism of the teleconnections and persistence’. Hawaii Institute of Geophysics, HIG-77-13, 107 pp.
Wright, P. B., 1984: ‘Relationships between indices of the Southern Oscillation’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 112, 1913–1919.
Wright, P. B., 1985: ‘The Southern Oscillation: an ocean-atmosphere feedback system?’ Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 66, 398–412.
Wright, P. B., 1989: ‘Homogenized long-period Southern Oscillation indices.’ J. Climatol., 9, 33–54.
Wu, M.-C., 1984: ‘On the interannual variability of the Indian monsson and the southern Oscillation’. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Meteorology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, 110 pp.
Wu, M.-C., Hastenrath, S., 1986: ‘On the interannual variability of the Indian monsoon and the Southern Oscillation.’ Archiv. Meteor. Geophys. Bioklim., 36B, 239–261.
Wyrtki, K., 1971: Oceanographie atlas of the International Indian Ocean Expedition. National Science Foundation, Washington, D. C., 531 pp.
Wyrtki, K., 1973: ‘Teleconnexions in the Equatorial Pacific’. Science, 180. 66–68.
Wyrtki, K., 1974a: ‘Sea level and the seasonal fluctuations of the equatorial currents in the western Pacific Ocean’. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 4, 91–103.
Wyrtki, K., 1974b: ‘Equatorial currents in the Pacific 1950 to 1970 and their relations to the trade winds’. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 4, 372–380.
Wyrtki, K., 1975a: ‘Fluctuations of the dynamic topography in the Pacific Ocean’. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 5, 450–459.
Wyrtki, K., 1975b: ‘The dynamic response of the Equatorial Pacific Ocean to atmospheric forcing’. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 5, 572–582.
Wyrtki, K., 1982: ‘The Southern Oscillation, ocean-atmosphere interaction and El Niño’. Marine Technology Society Journal, 16, 3–10.
Wyrtki, K., 1985: ‘Sea ievel fluctuations in the Pacific during the 1982–83 El Niño’. Geophys. Res. Lett., 12, 125–128.
Wyrtki, K., Eidin, G., 1982: ‘Equatorial upwelling events in the Central Pacific’. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 12, 984–988.
Yamazaki, Y., Rao, V. B., 1977: ‘Tropical cloudiness over the South Atlantic Ocean’. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 55, 205–207.
Yasunari, T., 1987a: ‘Global structure of the El Niño/ Southern Oscillation. Part I. El Niño composites’. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 65, 67–80.
Yasunari, T., 1987b: ‘Global structure of the El Niño/Southern Oscillation. Part II. Time evolution’. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 65, 81–102.
Zebiak, S. E., 1986: ‘Atmospheric convergence feedback in a simple model for El Niño’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 114, 1263–1271.
Zebiak, S. E., 1989: ‘Oceanic heat content variability and El Niño cycles’. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 19, 475–486.
Zebiak, S. E., Cane, M. A., 1987: ‘A model of El Niño-Southern Oscillation’. Mon. Wea. Rev., 115, 2262–2278.
Zimmermann, P. H., Selkirk, H. B., Newell, R. E., 1988: ‘The relationship between large-scale vertical motion, highly reflective cloud, and sea surface temperature in the tropical Pacific region’. J. Geophys. Res., 93, D9, 11205–11215.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1991 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Hastenrath, S. (1991). Interannual Variability of the Atmosphere-Ocean System. In: Climate Dynamics of the Tropics. Atmospheric Sciences Library, vol 8. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-3156-8_8
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-3156-8_8
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-0-7923-1346-5
Online ISBN: 978-94-011-3156-8
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive