The Political Direction of Scientific Development

Abstract

The question of whether processes of scientific development can be socially directed has been discussed for several decades with no convincing conclusions emerging. The controversies have produced, however, several conceptual distinctions which form a vocabulary for the analysts of science. Distinctions are often, for instance, made between: pure research and applied research; the autonomy of academic research and the heteronomy of industrial or governmental science; the internalist orientation of scientists concerned with the study of nature and the externalist orientation related to its regulation and domination, i.e. oriented to technology. These distinctions, although conceptually not sharp, are based on contrasting cases in the history of science such as, e.g., quantum mechanics, cancer research and agricultural chemistry.

The aim of the present essay is to present a theoretical discussion of a study of science policy in seven fields of research. The study deals with the general and comparative aspects of the controllability of the disciplines. Analyses of the special structures and processes of the orientation of research are presented in the following case studies: ‘Biotechnology’ (K. Buchholz), ‘Cancer Research’ (R. Hohlfeld), ‘Computer Science’ (K. Mainzer), ‘Educational Research’ (E. Schmitz), ‘Environmental Research’ (G. Küppers, P. Lundgreen and P. Weingart), ‘Heavy Ions’ (K. Prüss), ‘Plasma Physics’ (G. Küppers)

These analyses form the basis of the theoretical treatment presented in this paper. They also indicate the scope of the literature that has been examined in preparing the present essay, and should be consulted for the evidence referred to in this paper. The individual case studies are in the process of being published, together with the comparative evaluation, and are available from the present authors.

The authors of this essay wish to express their thanks to their colleagues who undertook the case studies. This discussion is the result of the work of all those associated with the project.

The project was carried out at the ‘Zentrum für interdisziplinäre Forschung’ in Bielefeld. We thank the Centre for its financial and organizational support.