Abstract
Prior to the space age, scientists knew practically nothing about the neutral atmosphere above 30 km. The early sounding rockets greatly advanced our understanding of the physics of this region in a relatively short time. During the period 1954–1970, ejections of sodium atoms by rockets created clouds that remained observable for tens of minutes. Sodium atoms in the atmosphere above 90 km have a relatively long lifetime. They are visible at twilight from optical resonance induced by sunlight at D doublet wavelengths. The first sodium trail experiments gave entirely new insights into the physics, dynamics and structure of the neutral atmosphere from 90 to 400 km. The turbopause was discovered, winds were measured, and quantitative data on eddy diffusion and the first vertical structure of the neutral temperature were obtained.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Authier, B., Blamont, J.E. and Carpentier, G. (1964). Mesure de la température de l’ ionosphère à partir de la fluorescence crépusculaire du monoxyde d’aluminium. Annales de Géophysique, 20, 342.
Authier, B., Blamont, J.E. and Lory-Chanin, M.L. (1965). Altitude comparison of electron and neutral gas temperatures. In Space Research VI, North-Holland, Amsterdam, p. 383.
Bates, D.R. (1947). The equilibrium of atmospheric sodium. Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity, 52, 71–75.
Bates, D.R. and Boyd, T.J.M. (1956). Inelastic heavy particle collisions involving the crossing of potential energy curves: IV. Unique recombination. Proceedings of the Physical Society, A69, 910.
Bates, D.R. and Seaton, M.J. (1950). Theoretical considerations regarding the formation of the ionized layer. Proceedings of the Physical Society, B63, 129–140.
Bawn, C.E.H. and Evans, A.G. (1937). The reaction of sodium atoms with the oxides of nitrogen, nitromethane, ethyl nitrate and amyl nitrate. Transactions of the Faraday Society, 33, 1571.
Bedinger, J.F., Ghosh, S.N. and Manring, E.R. (1957). Emission from sodium ejected from rockets. In M. Zelikoff (ed.), The Threshold of Space, Pergamon, London and New York, p. 225.
Bedinger, J.F., Manring, E.R. and Ghosh, S.N. (1958). Study of Na vapor ejected in the atmosphere. Journal of Geophysical Research, 63, 19.
Bernard, R. (1938a). Observation d’un nouveau phénomène de fluorescence dans la haute atmosphère. Présence et variations d’intensité de la radiation λ 5893 Å dans la lumière du ciel au crépuscule. Comptes Rendues de l’Académie des Sciences, Paris, 206, 448.
Bernard, R. (1983b). Etude interférentielle de la radiation jaune λ 5893 Å du ciel crépusculaire et preuve de la présence de sodium dans la haute atmosphère. Comptes Rendues de l’Académie des Sciences, Paris, 206, 928.
Blamont, J.E. (1956). Observations de rémission atmosphérique des raies D du sodium au moyen d’un appareil à balayage magnétique. In E.B. Amstrong and A. Dalgarno (eds), The Airglow and the Aurora, Pergamon, London and New York, p. 99.
Blamont, J.E. (1959). Nuages artificiels de sodium -Vitesse du vent, turbulence et densité de la haute atmosphère. Comptes Rendues de l’Académie des Sciences, Paris, 249, 1248.
Blamont, J.E. (1960). Nuages artificiels de sodium -Diffusion multiple de la lumière de résonnance. Comptes Rendues de l’Académie des Sciences, Paris, 250, 567.
Blamont, J.E. (1963). Turbulence in atmospheric motions between 90 and 130 km of altitude. Planetary and Space Science, 10, 89.
Blamont, J. (1966). Structure horizontale des vents au-dessus de 90 km. In Les Problèmes météorologiques de la stratosphère et de la troposphère, Presses Universitaires de France, p. 151.
Blamont, J.E. and Baguette, J.M. (1961a). Quelques résultats déduits de 1’étude de la déformation de nuages artificiels de métaux alcalins. Comptes Rendues de l’Académie des Sciences, Paris, 252, 3099.
Blamont, J.E. and Baguette, J.M. (1961b). Mesures déduites des déformations de six nuages de métaux alcalins formés par fusées dans la haute atmosphere. Annales de Géophysique, 17, 319.
Blamont, J.E. and Barat, J. (1967a). Dynamical structure of the atmosphere between 80 and 120 km. In B. MacCormac (ed.), Aurora and Airglow, Reinhold, New York, p. 159.
Blamont, J. and Barat, J. (1967b). Introduction d’un modèle pour la structure des mouvements de 1’atmosphère entre 85 et 110 km d’altitude. Annales de Géophysique, 23(2), 173.
Blamont, J. and Barat, J. (1968). Variation avec l’altitude de la structure du champ de turbulence atmosphérique. Annales de Géophysique, 24, 1.
Blamont, J.E. and Chanin, M.L. (1965). Temperature measurements in the ionosphere from 100 km to 400 km between 1960 and 1964. Space Research V, North-Holland, Amsterdam, p. 1137.
Blamont, J.E. and Chanin-Lory, M.L. (1964). Sudden heating of the ionosphere in the auroral zone. Nature, 201, 593.
Blamont, J.E. and de Jager, C. (1961). Upper atmospheric turbulence near the 100 km level. Annales de Géophysique, 17, 134.
Blamont, J.E., Donahue, T.M. and Lory, M.L. (1961a). Mesure de la température de la haute atmosphère à l’altitude de 370km. Physical Review Letters, 6, 403.
Blamont, J.E. and Lory, M.L. (1963). Mesure de la température de 1’atmosphère au moyen de nuages de potassium créés par des fusées. Comptes Rendues de l’Académie des Sciences, Paris, 257, 1135.
Blamont, J.E. and Lory, M.L. (1963b). New direct measurements of ionospheric temperatures. In H. Wexler and J.E. Caskey (eds), Proceedings of First International Symposium on Rocket and Satellite Meteorology, North-Holland, Amsterdam.
Blamont, J.E., Lory, M.L., Schneider, J.P. and Courtès, G. (1961b). Mesure de la température de 1’atmosphère à l’altitude de 370km, Space Research II, North-Holland, Amsterdam, p. 974.
Blamont, J.E. and Luton, J.M. (1972). Geomagnetic effects on the neutral temperature of the F-region during the magnetic storm of September 1969. Journal of Geophysical Research, 77, 3534.
Booker, H.G. (1956). Turbulences in the ionosphere with applications to meteor-trails, radiostar scintillation, aurora radar echos, and other phenomena. Journal of Geophysical Research, 61, 673–705.
Booker, H.G. and Cohen, R. (1956). A theory of long-duration meteor echos based on atmospheric turbulence with experimental confirmation. Journal of Geophysical Research, 61, 707–733.
Bricard, J. and Kastler, A. (1944). Recherches sur la radiation D du sodium dans la lumière du ciel crépusculaire et nocturne. Annales de Géophysique, 1, 53–91.
Bricard, J., Kastler, A. and Robley, R. (1949). Polarisation et mécanisme d’excitation de la raie D du sodium dans le ciel crépusculaire. Comptes Rendues de l’Académie des Sciences, Paris, 228, 1601.
Cabannes, J., Dufay, J. and Gauzit, J. (1938). Sur la présence du sodium dans la haute atmosphère. Comptes Rendues de l’Académie des Sciences, Paris, 206, 870.
Chamberlain, J.W. (1956). Resonance scattering by atmospheric sodium:1. Theory of the intensity plateau in the twilight airglow. Journal of Atmospheric and Terrestrial Physics, 9, 73–89.
Chanin, M.L., Keckhut, P., Hauchecorne, A. and Labitzke, K. (1989). The solar activity -Q B O effect in the lower thermosphere. Annales de Géophysique, 7, 463.
Chanin, M.L. and Tulinov, G.F. (1979). The polar thermosphere temperature behaviour during the 11 year solar cycle. Journal of Geophysical Research, 84, 406.
Chapman, S. (1939). Notes on atmospheric sodium. Astrophysical Journal, 90, 309–316.
Chernaev, V.I. and Vuks, M.F. (1937). The spectrum of the twilight sky. Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR, 14, 77–80.
Currie, B.W. and Edwards, H.W. (1936). On the auroral spectrograms taken at Chesterfield, Canada, during 1932–33. Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity, 41, 265–278.
Edwards, H.D., Bedinger, J.F., Manring, E.R. and Cooper, C.D. (1956). Emission from a sodium cloud artificially produced by means of a rocket. In E.B. Armstrong and A. Dalgarno (eds), The Airglow and the Aurora, Pergamon, London and New York, pp. 122–134.
Elvey, C.T. (1950). Note on the spectrum of the airglow in the red region. Astrophysical Journal, 111, 432.
Granier, C., Jegou, J.P., Chanin, M.L. and Megie, G. (1985). General theory of the alkali metals present in the earth’s upper atmosphere III. Diurnal variations. Annales Geophysicae, 3, 445–450.
Granier, C., Jegou, J.P., Megie, G. (1989). Iron atoms metallic species in the Earth’s upper atmosphere. Geophys. Res. Lett., 16, 243–246.
Greenhow, J.S. (1959). Eddy diffusion and its effect on meteor trails. Journal of Geophysical Research, 64, 2208–2209.
Groves, G.V. (1960). Upper-atmosphere wind studies by Skylark rocket sodium experiment. Nature, 187, 1001.
Hines, C.O. (1960). Internal atmospheric gravity waves at ionospheric heights. Can. J. Phys., 38, 144.
Hunten, D.M. (1954). A study of sodium in twilight: 1. Theory. Journal of Atmospheric and Terrestrial Physics, 5, 44–56.
Hunten, D.M. (1956). The interpretation of twilight measurements of sodium emission. In E.B. Amstrong and A. Dalgarno (eds), The Airglow and the Aurora, Pergamon Press, London and New York, pp. 183–192.
Hunten, D.M. (1960). Measurement of the temperature in the upper atmosphere to 150 km in a rocket experiment. Symposium on Aeronomy, Copenhagen, 1960. Annales de Géophysique, 17, 249.
Hunten, D.M. and Shepherd, G.G. (1954). A study of sodium in twilight:II. Observations on the distribution. Journal of Atmospheric and Terrestrial Physics, 5, 57–62.
Istomin, V.G. and Pokhunkov, A.A. (1963). Mass spectrometer measurements of atmospheric composition in the USSR. In Space Research III,North-Holland, Amsterdam, p. 117.
Jegou, J.P., Granier, C., Chanin M.L. and Megie, G. (1985). General theory of the alkali metals present in the Earth’s upper atmosphere I.Flux model: chemical and dynamical processes. Annales Geophysicae,3, 163–176.
Jegou, J.P., Granier, C., Chanin M.L. and Megie, G. (1985). General theory of the alkali metals present in the Earth’s upper atmosphere II.Seasonal variations. Annales Geophysicae, 3, 299–312.
Kochansky, A. (1964). Atmospheric motions from sodium cloud drifts.Journal of Geophysical Research, 69, 3651–3662.
Labitzke, K. and Chanin, M.L. (1988). Changes in the middle atmosphere in winter related to the 11 year solar cycle. Annales de Géophysique, 6, 643.
Labitzke, K. and Van Loon, H. (1997). The signal of the 11 year sunspot cycle in the upper-troposphere-lower stratosphere. Space Science Reviews, 80, 393.
Manring, E., Bedinger, J. and Knaflich, H. (1961). Some measurements of winds and of the coefficient of diffusion in the upper atmosphere. In Space Research II, North-Holland, Amsterdam, pp. 1107–1124.
Manring, E.R., Bedinger, J.F., Pettit, H.B. and Moore, C.B. (1959). Wind determinations in the upper atmosphere using artificially generated Na clouds. Journal of Geophysical Research, 64, 587.
Meadows, E. and Townsend, J. (1960). IGY rocket measurements of arctic atmospheric composition above 100 km. In Space Research I, North-Holland, Amsterdam, pp. 175–198.
Megie, G., Blamont, J.E. (1977). Laser sounding of mesospheric sodium -interpretation in terms of global atmospheric parameters. Planet. Space Sci., 25, 1093.
Newell, H.E. Jr. (1960). The upper atmosphere studied by rockets and satellites. In J.A. Ratcliffe (ed.), Physics of the Upper Atmosphere,Academic Press, New York and London, p. 73.
Pokhunkov, A.A. (1961). Mass-spectrometric investigations of structural parameters of terrestrial atmosphere on heights from 100 to 210 km.Iskusstvennykh Sputnikov Zemli, 7, 89–100.
Poloskov, S.M., Tulinov, G.F., Blamont, J.E., Chanin, M.L. and Maillard, M.(1969). Mesure de la température de la haute atmosphère dans la région polaire. Annales de Géophysique, 25, 393.
Sanford, R.F. (1950). Search for atmospheric Dl on high dispersion stellarspectrograms. Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific,62 272.
Stroud, W.G., Bandeen, W.R., Nordberg, W., Bartman, F.L., Otterman, J.and Titus, R. (1958). Atmospheric temperature and winds between 30 to 80 km. In Fifth Assembly of the Comité Spécial pour l’Année Géophysique Internationale, Moscow, Annals of the International Geophysical Year, Pergamon, London and New York.
Stroud, W.G., Nordberg, W. and Walsh, J.R. (1956). Atmospheric temperature and winds between 30 to 80 km. Journal of Geophysical Research,61, 45–58.
Thomas, G.E. and Chanin, M.L. (1999). Global change in the mesosphere and lower thermosphere: temperature and composition. In International Workshop on Long Term Changes and Trends in the Atmosphere,Poona.
Vegard, L. (1947). In Relations entre les phénomènes solaires et géophysiques, CNRS, Paris, p. 254.
Zaragoza, A. (1965). Nuages de sodium créés en Argentine. Internal Report, Service d’Aéronomie du CNRS.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2001 Kluwer Academic Publishers
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Blamont, J. (2001). Alkali metal cloud experiments in the upper atmosphere. In: Bleeker, J.A.M., Geiss, J., Huber, M.C.E. (eds) The Century of Space Science. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-010-0320-9_7
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-010-0320-9_7
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-0-7923-7196-0
Online ISBN: 978-94-010-0320-9
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive