6.1 Nonverbal Communication

Negotiations are primarily characterized by verbal communication, in that the negotiating partners communicate with each other through language and exchange their points of view (Obrien 2016). However, in addition to the spoken word, there are fundamental signals that are defined as nonverbal communication or body language (Obrien 2016). Non-verbal communication (communication without words) is the part of communication that is not guided by the conventionalized rules of a spoken language, which is expressed according to non-conventionalized rules of a language used, but through posture, movements or facial expressions (Einkaufsmanager 2018). Habitus refers to the postures that are perceived in interpersonal communication. It is the totality of all body signals (Helmold 2018). Gestures include the totality of gestures that serve as movements of interpersonal communication. In particular, movements of the arms or hands are signals that can provide information about feelings and position in negotiations. Facial expressions, also called expressions or facial expressions, are facial expressions or include signals from parts of the face such as blushing, sweating, frowning, or raising the eyebrows. Executives often try to avoid showing emotions in business negotiations as much as possible because they believe that emotions are not appropriate in business situations (Helmold 2018). However, they do this unconsciously because behavior and body language are directly related to emotions (Helmold 2018). The body does not know if it is in private or business and sends nonverbal signals. Negotiation experts such as Schranner and Dr. Helmold recommend the opposite: using emotions specifically and situationally (Schranner 2009; Helmold 2018). Emotions can also be deliberately used to deceive, evade, yield, or pressure the negotiating opponent (Helmold 2018). Elements of nonverbal communication refer to:

  • Upright or casual sitting posture

  • Closed or crossed legs

  • Posture of the hands

  • Firm hand or facial expression

  • Comfortable or uncomfortable standing

  • Spontaneous smile

  • Drooping corners of the mouth

  • Hectic movements

  • Sweat and blush

  • Touching body parts such as nose, arms or ears

  • Tailoring the clothes like the tie or the suit

  • Wiping dust from the suit

Figure 6.1 shows the elements of non-verbal communication with posture, facial expression and movements or gestures (Helmold 2018; Dathe and Helmold 2018). On the one hand, the posture of the body, facial expressions or even movements can provoke or entice the interlocutor, ensure a good atmosphere or, in the worst case, spoil the mood (Abdel-Latif 2015). On the other hand, non-verbal signals of the negotiating partner can be used sensibly and wisely for one’s own interests (Mühlisch 2006).

Fig. 6.1
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Non-verbal communication and body language. (Source: own representation)

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Example

Examples here can be the greeting and the seating position. The following greeting indicates a harmonious and equal relationship: The interlocutors shake hands with a smile and keep half an arm’s length apart. The hand position is parallel. The case is different if your conversation partner wants to dominate you. Then he not only touches your hand in greeting, but also grabs you by the lower or even upper arm. In this way, your counterpart nonverbally demonstrates his claim to leadership. This also applies if your partner turns his hand upwards while you shake hands. An upright sitting position signals “my mind is wide awake and I am listening”. If your hands are clearly visible on the table, your partner appears to inspire confidence. He subconsciously symbolizes that he has nothing to hide and is putting his arguments openly on the table (Helmold and Terry 2016). However, when he puts his elbows on the table and clasps his fist with his hand, he builds a protective wall. Something doesn’t sit well with your counterpart and he is probably bracing himself for a verbal exchange. However, a position that is too relaxed and provocative is also unfavourable. If, for example, the negotiating partner leans backwards in negotiations and crosses his arms behind his head, as if he were comfortably on the sofa in front of the television, then he wants to show his power and provoke the negotiating opponent. The interlocking of the hands is supposed to show composure and superiority. However, experts advise caution here: the negotiation opponent shows an open chest, but the elbows point like a weapon pointed at the other side (Obrien 2016). As a counter tactic, it is recommended to present a document to the negotiator who is too superior, so that he has to change his posture, bend over the table and use his arms (Obrien 2016). Another recommended tactic here is to change the location of the negotiation away from the table and towards a whiteboard or flipchart. When a whiteboard or flipchart is available and presents an issue, the superior and arrogant negotiator is forced to get off their “high horse” and listen to what is being said (Helmold 2018).

In order to be clear about the importance of non-verbal communication, it is important not only to determine the levels at which this takes place, but also to analyse the flow of information and the overall context in detail in order to relate signals in non-verbal communication to the negotiation or conversation. For example, an Asian business partner travelling to Germany for a one-hour meeting with his business partner may seem tired and bored because he was unable to sleep on the plane and the time difference may be noticeable through body signals such as yawning, tiredness and inattention (Helmold 2018). Statements must therefore be made about the nature and sensitivity of the information-receiving receptors in the overall context (Helmold 2018).

6.2 Positive and Negative Signals

6.2.1 Sending Positive Signals as a Recommendation

Negotiation experts and behavioural researchers generally recommend sending positive signals when initiating business (Helmold 2018). This fact also applies to negotiations. A friendly greeting in an upright posture with a positive facial expression and a firm handshake sends positive signals to the negotiating partner. Also, deliberate changes in posture, facial expressions or gestures at many stages of a conversation or negotiation can direct the focus to the future and a successful and amicable outcome. These signals can look like this, for example:

  • Changing the distance to the interlocutor, e.g. moving closer to show sympathy or moving away to show respect.

  • Relaxing your posture combined with a smile to defuse critical negotiation situations

  • Call a break and leave the room to de-escalate blockades

  • Stand up and go to the blackboard to visualize facts and get closer to each other

6.2.2 Conscious Use of Negative Signals

In addition to positive signals, however, negative signals can also be deliberately used on a case-by-case basis. These can be used situationally in negotiations if the demands of the negotiating opponent are exaggerated, not objective or unrealistic. In this case, signals can and must be sent out to show the negotiating opponent that there is no prospect of agreement. However, it is generally recommended to enter negotiations in a positive mood, as both parties are usually interested in finding a solution (Helmold 2018; Bauer-Jelinek 2007).

6.3 Signals of the Body Posture

6.3.1 Positive Signals and Signs of Approval

6.3.1.1 Slightly Bent Forward, Open Posture and Open Facial Expression

The negotiating partner shows attention and interest in what is happening and in the negotiation. He shows positive signals and follows the negotiation with concentration. The negotiator is open to different points and waits for the negotiator to start and make a request. The negotiation can begin and negotiation points should be addressed using a clear agenda and set objectives (Helmold 2018). Figure 6.2 shows the example of the opening of the negotiation (Table 6.1).

Fig. 6.2
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Negotiation and conversation opening. (Source: own representation)

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Table 6.1 Signal of consent: open and bent forward posture, hands interlaced
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6.3.1.2 Slightly Bent Forward, Open Posture and Outstretched Hands and Open Facial Expression

The negotiating partner shows attention and interest, he stretches out his arms and opens his hands. This signal can be seen as an invitation. He shows positive signals and follows the negotiation in a concentrated way, the open hands suggest a willingness to talk. He is open to different points and will pay attention to my concerns (Helmold 2018). The willingness of the negotiating counterparty to start the negotiation can be used to identify negotiating positions, motives and goals by waiting and letting the negotiating partner talk (Helmold 2018) (Fig. 6.3; Table 6.2).

Fig. 6.3
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Opening negotiations and conversations with open hands. (Source: own representation)

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Table 6.2 Slightly bent forward, friendly and open posture. Hands outstretched and open facial expression
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6.3.1.3 Slightly Bent Forward, Open Posture, Hands Open, Open Facial Expression, Notes

The negotiator shows attention and interest of the negotiator. He signals that he is very well prepared. He shows positive signals and will follow the negotiation in a concentrated and detailed way. He is open to different points, but has staked out his own positions and is waiting for the negotiating partner to start and make his point. In this situation, it is also advisable to let the negotiation partner talk in order to understand his concerns, motives and positions (Helmold 2018) (Fig. 6.4; Table 6.3).

Fig. 6.4
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Slightly bent forward, open posture, hands open, open facial expression, notes. (Source: own representation)

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Table 6.3 Slightly bent forward, open posture, hands open, open facial expression, notes
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6.3.2 Rejection Signals

6.3.2.1 Leaning Back, Arms Folded behind the Head

Reactions with folded arms suggest rejection and doubt on the part of the negotiating partner. It may also just be a tactic of the negotiating partner to show his superiority. However, this signal shows disinterest and no signal for a negotiation conclusion. If the negotiating partner does not change his behaviour, the negotiation should be adjourned and his negotiating position redefined (Helmold 2018) (Fig. 6.5; Table 6.4).

Fig. 6.5
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Signals of rejection: Leaning back, arms folded behind the head. (Source: Own representation)

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Table 6.4 Leaning back, arms folded behind the head
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6.3.2.2 Temporary Distraction by Mobile Phone Or Laptop and Disinterest

6.3.2.2.1 Playing with the Laptop and Temporary Distraction

Playing with the mobile phone or the laptop shows brief disinterest or temporary refusal. The negotiating partner is unfocused, not on the point and does not follow the negotiation completely. He or she does not take part in the proceedings because he or she may want to make a quick phone call or has seen a message. You yourself should not be distracted in negotiations and should be on the point. If the negotiator does not press for a short break, it is advisable in this case to interject less important points, which, however, might not be accepted immediately if the negotiator is fully concentrated. In the case of points that are not too essential, he will be more willing to make concessions in order to return to the supposedly more important topic (Helmold 2018).

6.3.2.2.2 Lack of Interest Or Visible Arrogance by Resting Head on Hand Or Leaning Back

Disinterest and inattention are clear and direct signals of rejection. In this case, it is advisable to adjourn the negotiations unless the behaviour of the negotiating partner changes. Figure 6.6. shows examples of rejection by looking away, resting the head on the hand and disinterest (Helmold 2018) (Table 6.5).

Fig. 6.6
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Signal of rejection or deliberate avoidance by distraction. (Source: Own representation)

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Table 6.5 Temporary distraction by mobile phone or laptop and disinterest
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6.3.3 Thinking and Waiting

In this situation, the negotiator waits and weighs the proposals of the other side. If there is a negotiating team with several members on the other side, there will be a desire for a vote. Therefore, one should give the other side time to think and weigh. One should already be prepared oneself for possible answers, arguments or counter-arguments. Although the index finger and the posture suggest doubt, the eyes are still wide open. These gestures and facial expressions show that the negotiation partner is still listening attentively and following the argumentation (Helmold 2018; Fig. 6.7). As long as the attention is given, the two to three strongest arguments should be mentioned para. 4.4. Possible counter-arguments should be specifically invalidated by defending and concentrating on the weakest argument Sect. 4.6 (Table 6.6).

Fig. 6.7
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Signal of waiting or doubt by weighing alternatives. (Source: Own representation)

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Table 6.6 Think and wait
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6.3.4 Attacking the Other Side Through Targeted Attacks

The negotiating partner underlines his direct demands by attacking and sending a clear signal in the form of clenched fists or a raised index finger directed at the negotiating partner (Fig. 6.8). Attacks and advances reveal the negotiator’s motives and interests. Comments and demands of the negotiating opponent should be followed rationally and attentively. In this situation, listening is more important than talking; points should be noted carefully. Signals of agreement such as temporary smiles or nods can also be advantageous in order to give the other party signs of supposed agreement (Table 6.7).

Fig. 6.8
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Attack by counterpart through targeted attacks. (Source: Own representation)

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Table 6.7 Attacking the other side with targeted attacks
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6.3.5 Signals of Deception Or Untruthfulness

6.3.5.1 Signs of Untruths Or Exaggerations

In principle, neither side deliberately lies in negotiations or conflict talks, but rather tries to conceal or not address aspects in order to strengthen its own position (Helmold and Terry 2016). For example, a buyer will not want to disclose to a seller that he has no alternative courses of action, even if he can only and exclusively use products from that supplier. A seller, on the other hand, will not disclose that he will bid an order at cost, i.e., without making a profit (long-term price floor), in order to utilize existing capacity in his own factory, otherwise production areas would stand empty. Untruths, lies or white lies are protective gestures and generate stress, which manifests itself physically as follows:

  • pull or scratch the earlobe

  • wring one’s hands

  • lick one’s lips

  • wipe the sweat from one’s brow or neck

  • repeated plucking at the clothing

  • unmotivated straightening of the hair

  • play with one’s fingernails

Tilted gaze, touching parts of the face or temporary deviation are signals of lying or exaggeration. Signals of untruths are difficult to detect, but can be uncovered through observation and by conducting negotiations in a more in-depth and analytical manner. In particular, exaggerations are common in intercultural settings and are often seen as lies by the recipient and negotiating partner (Helmold and Terry 2016).

6.3.5.2 Touching Parts of the Body, Blinking Or Looking Away

Touching the nose or earlobe, blinking or shying away may be signs of untruths or exaggerations (Figs. 6.9, 6.10 and 6.11). In this situation, detailed questions should be asked and analytical negotiation tools used to detect exaggerations or lies. As a matter of principle, one should not imply a lie, but rather reveal the lie with targeted counter-questions or make exaggerations recognizable and build one’s own strategy on this (Helmold 2018) (Table 6.8).

Fig. 6.9
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Touching the earlobe or other parts of the body. (Source: own representation)

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Fig. 6.10
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Touching the nose. (Source: own representation)

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Fig. 6.11
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Signal of deception: brief blinking, looking away or looking at the phone. (Source: own representation)

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Table 6.8 Touching body parts such as nose or ears, blinking or looking away
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6.3.6 Signals of Stress

6.3.6.1 Positive and Negative Stress

In negotiations, mistakes are very often caused by stress. Under stress, the emotional side of people comes out. Stress means tension, pressure and physical signals such as a faster heartbeat, the increased blood flow to the brain, the tension of the muscles or energy supply through blood sugar and fats. When stress occurs, the body is put under tension and stimuli are transmitted to the brain via the sensory organs eyes, ears or nose in dangerous situations (Eckert and Tarnowski 2017). Norepinephrine and epinephrine are released, which put the body in maximum readiness to perform. If the stress is successfully managed, the organism returns to normal and the adrenaline dissipates (Eckert and Tarnowski 2017). However, if the stress persists, then the brain sends a replenishment request of adrenaline. In that case, the second stress axis, the so-called wet stress axis, is activated and cortisol is released into the blood so that the organism remains adapted and at maximum performance level in the stressful situation (AOK 2018). The increased release of cortisol signals danger to our system and a chronic state of stress occurs. Over time, the adrenal glands can then become exhausted and no longer produce enough cortisol. I.e., cortisol levels drop below normal levels after becoming excessive and symptoms such as fatigue, lack of energy, etc. can occur (AOK 2018). In science, a distinction is made between positive stress (eustress) and negative stress (distress). Distress is also referred to as negative stress. “Dis” is a Latin prefix and stands for “bad”. With all its negative physical, mental and emotional consequences, it is so stressful for the person concerned over a longer period of time that it can eventually lead to burn-out. Eustress is derived from the Greek prefix “Eu” for “good”. This type of stress is usually not perceived as a burden. It usually involves activities that are particularly enjoyable and that one performs with great passion. Here, stress can have an invigorating effect and even promote performance (AOK 2018). For one’s own position, one should assess how long the eustress can be maintained and when symptoms of fatigue set in. When fatigue sets in, the negotiation should be interrupted or terminated. Distress, on the other hand, is detrimental to one’s position, so that negotiations should be adjourned in order to maintain a clear head. Distress on the part of the negotiating partner can temporarily lead to advantages for the negotiator, but here too consideration should be given to postponing the negotiations.

6.3.6.2 Signals of Stress

Figures 6.12 and 6.13 show symptoms of stress from short-term fingernail biting or tie straightening. Similarly, touching other parts of clothing or the body is a signal of stress, suggesting untruths or exaggerations. By asking specific questions and using appropriate questioning techniques, untruths or exaggerations can be identified and made visible Sect. 4.5.4. When identifying untruths, the negotiating partner should not be confronted by reproaches, but the knowledge should be used in a targeted manner in one’s own argumentation by rebutting the opponent’s arguments in order to sustainably assert one’s own demands (Helmold 2018) (Table 6.9).

Fig. 6.12
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Chewing fingernails. (Source: Own representation)

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Fig. 6.13
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Straighten the tie. (Source: Own representation)

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Table 6.9 Signals of stress
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6.3.6.3 Signals of Possible Agreement

Figure 6.14 shows a position facing the negotiator with signals of agreement by opening the hand or indicating to meet the negotiator. In this situation there is a likelihood of finalising the negotiations and getting one’s negotiating points accepted. It is possible here to enforce his demands by making smaller concessions to the negotiating partner. Smaller concessions give him the feeling of coming out of the negotiation as a winner. With the agreement, all negotiation points should be clearly recorded Sect. 4.7.1 (Helmold 2018) (Table 6.10).

Fig. 6.14
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Signal of agreement: Facing position. (Source: Own representation)

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Table 6.10 Signals of possible agreement
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6.4 Facial Expressions: What Do Facial Expressions and Eyes Reveal?

Facial expressions are the visible movements of the facial surface, e.g. frowning, blinking, blushing, or rolling the eyes. In most cases, an overall impression is created from individual facial expressions, as the individual movements of the facial muscles take place in fractions of a second. Body language can only be controlled to a limited extent but is also difficult for the person opposite to recognize (Eckert and Tarnowski 2017). Especially in stressful situations, people resort to typical calming gestures, the so-called adaptors. A grip on the earlobe, scratching the chin or touching the palms of the hands are among them. Adaptors are usually performed in milliseconds and cannot always be recognized immediately, so patterns and symptoms of stress must be identified (Eckert and Tarnowski 2017).

Increases in adaptors usually indicate stress, discomfort, or increased concentration. Gestures that someone typically uses when speaking tend to decrease with cognitive effort. Finally, there are physical reactions that cannot be controlled at all, such as increased blood flow to the skin leading to visible blushing, or increased blinking frequency of the eyes, for example (Eckert and Tarnowski 2017).

Most often, adaptors occur in conjunction with other elements, such as the voice (Eckert and Tarnowski 2017). According to psychology, the voice can also betray symptoms of stress as described by Eckert & Tarnnowski (Eckert and Tarnowski 2017). Deviation from normal voice pitch is usually a good indication of emotional arousal in your conversation partner. A noticeably low voice pitch, but also sudden, louder or faster speech can be indications of sadness or guilt (Eckert and Tarnowski 2017).

It is not so easy to interpret the facial expressions of your fellow human beings correctly. Although emotions are relatively easy to recognize in facial expressions, they can quickly be misinterpreted. An emotion is usually expressed through the interaction of different facial expressions. Anger, for example, is expressed through contracted eyebrows, wide open eyes and compressed lips. Distinctive points for the facial expression are the forehead, the eye and the mouth area. These can sometimes be used in seemingly opposite ways. For example, one can smile and frown at the same time. (Eckert and Tarnowski 2017). The interpretation of facial expressions is always subjective. One often interprets large parts of the facial expressions of the counterpart instinctively correctly. However, one does not pay attention to many small facial expressions. By looking carefully, one can better grasp the true intention of the interlocutor (Eckert and Tarnowski 2017).

6.4.1 Positive Facial Expressions

A smile in combination with wide open eyes is usually a positive signal and signifies agreement and a friendly attitude towards the suggestions being made (Obrien 2016; Helmold 2018). Furthermore, a smooth forehead can be seen, signifying relaxation. Figure 6.15 shows dilated pupils and relaxed corners of the mouth, so a positive reaction from the negotiator is evident here. Other positive signals besides eye contact are a smile, a concentrated but not fixed gaze or relaxed corners of the mouth. Table 6.11 shows examples that can be used to derive positive signals.

Fig. 6.15
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Positive signals in facial expressions. (Source: Own representation)

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Table 6.11 Positive signals in facial expressions
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6.4.2 Negative Facial Expressions, Rejection and Deception

People also use their facial expressions consciously or unconsciously to express skepticism or rejection. Non-verbal and consciously used means for negative signals are for example the wrinkling of the nose (disgust, disgust), the pushing out of the lower lip (scepticism), staring (threat) or obvious yawning (boredom). In addition, there are also unconscious negative signals displayed by adaptors (Obrien 2016; Helmold 2018), as Fig. 6.16 shows. Table 6.12 describes negative signals and signs of rejection in facial expressions.

Fig. 6.16
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Negative signals in facial expressions. (Source: Own representation)

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Table 6.12 Negative signals in facial expressions
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6.4.3 Deliberate Deception Through Facial Expressions

For example, when a person who is telling the untruth feels that you have bought his lie, a sense of superiority sets in, as Obrien describes. Those who are trained can detect an implied smile for a brief moment. Microexpressions are therefore the most important source of deception cues. However, recognizing them and being able to correctly classify them requires practice. Deceptions or lies can be detected by looking away briefly, smiling thoughtfully, or blinking frequently at the time of deception. Figure 6.17 shows looking away or closed eyes in conjunction with slightly raised corners of the mouth, suggesting a possible deception (Helmold 2018).

Fig. 6.17
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Signals of deception in facial expressions. (Source: Own representation)

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6.5 Recommendations: Analysis and Response to Non-verbal Communication

Analysis of nonverbal communication is difficult because people and behaviors are involved (Obrien 2016). Often microexpressions and expressions of nonverbal communication are shown in milliseconds (Helmold 2018). When analyzing nonverbal communication, attention should be paid to patterns of behavior and recurring cues. In this context, a zero line (baseline) can be established from which behavioural patterns (clusters) can be identified by testing signals and stimuli, as shown in Fig. 6.18. On this basis, recurring patterns in behaviour, facial expressions or gestures can be discovered, so that it is possible to identify which non-verbal signals have which meaning. These insights and aids can then be usefully applied in one’s own negotiation strategy and tactics (Obrien 2016).

Fig. 6.18
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Analysis of non-verbal communication. (Source: Own representation)

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Table 6.13 summarizes the recommendations for analysis techniques within nonverbal expressions.

Table 6.13 Recommendations for non-verbal communication
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