Abstract
Components, materials, and assemblies have a great impact on the quality and reliability of the equipment and systems in which they are used. Their selection and qualification has to be considered with care by new technologies or important redesigns, on a case-by-case basis. Besides cost and availability on the market, important selection criteria are intended application, technology, quality, long-term behavior of relevant parameters, and reliability. A qualification test includes characterization at different stresses (for instance, electrical and thermal for electronic components), environmental tests, reliability tests, andfailure analysis. After some considerations about selection criteria for electronic components (Section 3.1), this chapter deals with qualification tests for complex integrated circuits (Section 3.2) and electronic assemblies (Section 3.4), and discusses basic aspects offailure modes, mechanisms, and analysis of electronic components (Section 3.3). Procedures given in this chapter can be extended to nonelectronic components and materials as well. Reliability related basic technological properties of electronic components are summarized in Appendix A10. Statistical tests are in Chapter 7, test and screening strategies in Chapter 8, design guidelines in Chapter 5.
*Ingénieur et penseur, Ph.D., Professor Emeritus of Reliability Eng. at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH), Zurich
Access provided by Autonomous University of Puebla. Download to read the full chapter text
Chapter PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Keywords
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
Ohring M., Reliability and Failure of Electronic Materials and Devices, 1998, Academic Press, NY.
Wang J.X. et al., Risk Engineering and Management, 2000, Dekker, NY.: see also [A1.1 to A5.6]
Williams T.W. (Ed.), VLSI - Testing, 1986, North-Holland, Amsterdam.
Pierrat L., “Estimation de la prob. de déf. par interaction de 2 lois Weibull”, Rev. Stat. Appl., 1992, pp. 5-13; “La variabilité stat. de la température et son infl. sur la durée de vie”, Congrès IMAPS 05, Grenoble; “La fiabilité des comp. de puissance”, inv. paper S1-4 Coll. EPF’06, Grenoble.
Braband J., “Improving the risk priority number concept”, J. of System Safety, Q2(2003), pp. 21–23.
Meindi J.D. (Ed.), Special Issue on Limits of Semiconductor Technology, Proc. IEEE, 89(2001)3.
Kececioglu D., Reliability Eng. Handbook (Vol. 1 & 2), 1991, Prentice, Englewood Cliffs NJ; -et al., “Combined-stress fatigue reliability analysis”, Proc. Ann. Rel. & Maint. Symp., 1998, pp. 202–08; -et al., “A unified approach to random fatigue reliability quantification under random loading”, Proc. Ann. Rel. & Maint. Symp., 1998, pp. 308–13.
Ascher H., “Evaluation of repairable system rel. using the bad-as-old concept”, IEEE Trans. Rel., 17(1968)2, pp. 103–10;- et al., Repairable Systems Reliability, 1984, Dekker, NY (new Ed. in prep.).
Bajenescu T.I. et al., Component Reliability for Electronic Systems, 2009, Artech House, Boston.
Shangguan D. (Ed.), Lead-Free Solder Interconnect Reliability, 2005, ASM International, Ohio.
Collett R.E. et al., “Integration of BIT effectiveness with FMECA”, Proc. Ann. Rel. & Maint. Symp., 1984, pp. 300–305.
Pahm H., ed. Handbook of Reliability Engineering, 2003, Springer, Berlin & NY.
Moore E.F. et al., “Reliable circuits using less reliable relays”, J. of the Franklin Inst., 262(1956), pp. 191–208 and 281–297.
Keene S.J., “Eng. application of failure data”, Proc. Ann. Rel. & Maint. Symp., 1971, pp. 104–09.
IEC 60812: Procedure for FMEA, 2006; 61025: Fault Tree Analysis (FTA), 2006.
Christou A. et al., Reliability of Compound Semiconductor Analog ICs, 2006 Center of Rel. Eng. Univ. of Maryland.
ETH Zurich, Rel. Lab., Reports P3-P18: Qualification Tests on 7 Telecom. Equipment, 1989-91.
Lindemann C., et al., “Numerical methods for reliability evaluation of Markov closed fault-tolerant systems”, IEEE Trans. Rel., 44(1995)4, pp. 694–704.
Wolfgang E. et al., “Electron beam testing”, Proc. ESREF’90, Bari, pp. 111-120.
Engelmaier W., Reliable Surface Mount Solder Attachments Through Design & Manuf. Quality, 1993, Rep. L21, ETH Zurich, Rel. Lab. (also Proc. ETH/IEEE Workshop SMT, 1992).
Agarwal M. et al., “CERT analysis of consecutive k-out-of-n: F systems”, IEEE Trans. Rel., 56(2007)1, pp. 26–34.
Dersin P. et al., “Selecting test and maintenance strategies to achieve availability target with lowest life-cycle-cost”, Proc. Ann. Rel. & Maint. Symp., 2008, pp. 301–06.
Troutmann R.R., “Latch-up in CMOS technol.”, IEEE Circuits and Rev. Mag., (1987)5, pp. 15-21.
ANSI Z1.1 and Z1.2–1958: Guide for Quality Control and Control Chart Method of Analyzing Data; Z1.3–1959: Control Chart Method of Controlling Quality During Production.
Pecht M., (Ed.) Handbook of Electronic Package Design, 1991, Dekker, NY; - et al., “Are components still the major problem?, IEEE Trans. Comp., Hybr. & Manuf. Technol., 15(1992), pp. 1160–64.
Catrysse J., “PCB & syst. design under EMC constr.”, Proc. 11th Int. Zurich EMC Symp., 1995, pp.47–58.
Peters G.A., “Risk analysis”, Technology, Law and Insurance, (1997) 2, pp. 97–110.
Hura G.S., “A Petri net approach to enumerate all system success paths for rel. evaluation of complex systems”; “Petri net approach to the analysis of a structured program”; “Petri net as a mod. tool”, Microel. & Rel., 22(1982)3, pp. 427–39, (1983) pp. 157–59, 467–75, 851–53.
Philofsky E., “Design limits when using Au-Al bonds”, Proc. Int. Rel. Phys. Symp., 1986, pp. 114–19.
RAC, PRISM System Reliability Assessment Software, 2001, RAC Rome, NY (s. also [1.22]).
Luo T. et al., “Improved alg. for coherent-system rel.”, IEEE Trans. Rel., 47(1998)1, pp. 73–78.
MIL-STD-883: Test Methods and Procedures for Microelectronics, Ed. D 1991; see also -199, -202, -750, -810, -976, -I3 8535, -M 38510, -S 19500.
Jensen F., Electronic Component Reliability, 1995, Wiley, NY.
Hirschi W., “EMV gerechte Auslegung elektron. Geräte”, Bull. SEV/VSE, 83(1992)11, pp. 25–29.
NSWC-07, Handbook of Rel. Prediction for Mech. Equipment, 2007, Naval Surface Warfare Center-Carderock Division, Bethesda, MA (see also MechRel software package).
Hnatek E.R., Integrated Circuit Quality and Reliability, 2nd Ed. 1999, Dekker, NY.
Beichelt F., et al., Zuverlässigkeit & Instandhaltung - Math. Methoden, 1983, Technik, Berlin;Beichelt F., Zuverlässigkeits- und Instandhaltbarkeitstheorie, 1993, Teubner, Stuttgart.
Belzunce F. et al., “Comparison of expected failure times for several replacement policies”, IEEE Trans. Rel., 55(2006)4, pp. 400–05.
Ellis B.N., Cleaning and Contamination of Electronics Components and Assemblies, 1986, Electrochemical Publ., Ayr (Scotland).
Berg M., “A proof of optimality for age replacement policies”, J. Appl. Prob., 13(1976), pp. 751–59; – et al., “Comparison of age, block & failure repl. policies”, IEEE Trans. Rel., 27(1978)1, pp. 25–29.
RAC (now RIAC), NONOP-1: Nonoperating Rel. Data, 1992; NPRD-95: Nonelectronic Parts Rel. Data, 1995 (NPRD-08 to appear); TR-89–177: VHSIC/ VHSIC Rel. Modeling; TR-90–72: Rel. Analysis Assessment of Adv. Technologies.
Mitra S. et al., “Common-mode failures in redundant VLSI systems: A survey”, IEEE Trans. Rel., 49(2000)3, pp. 285–95.
De Salvo B., et al., “A new physical model for NVM data-retention time to failure”, Proc. Int. Rel. Phys. Symp., 1999, pp. 19-23.
Deutsch A., “Electrical characteristics of interconnections for high-performance systems”, Proc. IEEE, 86(1998)2, pp. 315–55.
Birolini A., “Comments on Renewal theoretic aspects of two-unit redundant systems”, IEEE Trans. Rel., 21(1972)2, pp. 122–23; “Generalization of the expressions for rel. and availability of rep. items”, Proc. 2. Int. Conf. on Struct. Mech. in Reactor Techn., Berlin: 1973, Vol. VI, pp. 1–16; “Some appl. of regenerative stochastic processes to reliability theory - part two: Reliability and availability of 2-item redundant systems”, IEEE Trans. Rel., 24(1975)5, pp. 336–40; On the Use of Stochastic Processes in Modeling Reliability Problems (Habil. Thesis ETH), 1985, Springer, Berlin (Lect. Notes Ec. & Math. Syst. Nr. 252); Qualität & Zuverlässigkeit tech. Systeme, 1985, 1988, 1991, 1997, Springer, Berlin.
Goddard P.L., “Software FMEA techniques”, Proc. Ann. Rel. & Maint. Symp., 2000, pp. 118–23.
Hofstädt H. et al., “Qualitative testability analysis and hierarchical test pattern generation: A new approach to design for testability”, Proc. Int. Test. Conf., 1987, pp. 538–46.
Haug S. et al., “Impact of electronic comp. obsolescence on commercial aerospace”, Aerospace Mag., 1999, March, pp. 26–31; see also CENELEC ES 59010 (2001) and IEC TS62239.
Brambilla P. et al., “Rel. evaluation of plastic-packaged device for long life applications by THB test”, Microel. & Rel., 26(1986)2, pp. 365–84.
Bobbio A., “System modeling with Petri nets” in Colombo G. et al. (eds.), System Rel Assessment, 1990, ECSC, EEC, EAEC, Brussels; “Stoch. reward models for performance & dependab. analysis”, J. of Commun., 43(1992)1, pp. 27–35.
Hutchings F. et al. (Ed.), Failure Analysis, 1981, Am. Soc. Met., Metals Park OH.
Chrysler, Ford, GM, Potential FMEA, 2nd Ed. 1995 (also as SAE J-1739).
Collins J.A., Failure of Materials in Mechanical Design, 1981, Wiley, NY.
Srinivasan G., “Modeling cosmic-ray-induced soft errors in IC’s”, IBM J. R&D, 40(1996)1, pp. 77-90.
Suich R.C. et al., “Minimize system cost by choosing optimal subsystem reliability and redundancy”, Proc. Ann. Rel. & Maint. Symp., 1993, pp. 293–97.
IEEE, Special issue on: Plastic Encapsulated Microcircuits, IEEE Trans. Rel., 42(1993)4.
Roush M.L. et al., Applied Reliability Engineering, 2002, Center for Rel. Eng., Maryland.
Ajmone-Marsan M. et al., “A class of general stochastic Petri nets for performance ev. of multiproc. systems”, ACM Trans. Comp. Syst., 2(1984)2, pp. 93–122; Performance Models of Multiprocessor Systems, 1986, MIT Press; Modeling with Generalized Stochastic Petri Nets, 1995, Wiley, NY.
ESA PSS 01–603: ESA Preferred parts List, 3rd Ed. 1995.
Umiker B. et al., “Wie lassen sich grosse Industriekatastrophen verhüten?”, Manag. Zeitschrift, 1(1987), pp. 15–22; Umiker B., “The modern art of a discourse on risk”, 4th Europ. Conf. on Safety Anal. & Risk Manag., Oct. 19, 1993, Roma; “Risk management: Concept and implementation”, ASCOM Tech. Mag., 3(1994), pp. 33–36; Kommunikationssicherheit in der Sicherheitskommunikation”, Amer. Soc. for Ind. Security Meeting, Zurich ETH, June 4, 1997.
Onodera K., “Effective technique of FMEA at each life-cycle”, Proc. Ann. Rel. & Maint. Symp. 1997, pp. 50–56.
Haseloff E., Was nicht im Datenblatt steht, 1992, Appl.-Bericht EB 192, Texas Instruments, Freising; “Entwicklungsrichtlinien für schnelle Logikschaltungen und Systemen”, Proc. ETH/IEEE Conf. on Design Rules for Rel., EMC, Maint., Soft. Qual., 1993, ETH Zurich, Rel. Lab., pp. 5.1–17.
Picciolo G. et al., “Thermoelectrical power station rel. assessment”, Proc. PMAPS 2002, pp. 347–53.
IEC 61709: Electronic Components Reliability - Reference Condition for Failure Rates and Stress Models for Conversion, 1996 (new edition in preparation).
Barbottin G., et al. (Eds.), Instabilities in Silicon Devices, 1986, North-Holland, Amsterdam.
Howes M.J. et al. (Eds.), Rel. and Degradation - Semiconductor Dev. & Circuits, 1981, Wiley, NY.
Ciappa M., Ausfallmech. integrierter Schaltungen, 1991, Reports F1 & F4, ETH Zurich, Rel. Lab.; - et al., “Reliability of laser-diode modules in temperature-uncontrolled env.”, Int. Rel. Phys. Symp., 1994, pp. 466–69; - et al., “Lifetime prediction of IGBT modules for traction applications”, Proc. Int. Rel. Phys. Symp., 2000, pp. 210-16.
Bernet R., “CARP - A program to calculate the predicted reliability”, 6th Int. Conf. on Rel. & Maint., Strasbourg 1988, pp. 306–10; Modellierung reparierbarer Systeme durch Markoff- und Semiregenerative Prozesse, 1992, Ph.D. Thesis 9682, ETH Zurich; Birolini A. et al., CARAP ETH Technical Spec., 1995, Report S10, ETH Zürich, Rel. Lab.; Kovalenko I. and Kuznetov N., Basis of the RS-Program/Guidance to the RS-Program, 1997, Rep. S13/S14, ETH Zurich, Rel. Lab.
Kuehn R., “Four decades of reliability experience”, Proc. Ann. Rel. & Maint. Symp., 1991, pp. 76–81.
Keymeulen D. et al., “Fault-tolerant evolvable hardware using field-programmable transistor arrays”, IEEE Trans. Rel., 49(2000)3, pp. 306–16.
ASM, Packaging, Vol. 1, 1989, ASM Int., Material park OH.
Stamenkovic B. et al., “Failure modes, effects and criticality analysis: The basic concepts and applications”, Proc. Int. Summer Seminar, Dubrovnik, 1987, pp. 21–25.: see also [1.22, 5.83, 5.95, 5.99]
Bednarz S. et al., “Efficient analysis for FMEA”, Proc. Ann. Rel. & Maint. Symp., 1988, pp. 416–21.
Lenz E., Automatisiertes Löten elektronischer Baugruppen, 1985, Siemens, Munich.
Held M. et al., “Fast power cycling test for IGBT’s in traction appl.”, Proc. PDES, 1997, pp. 425–30.
Kutz M. (Ed.), Mechanical Engineers’ Handbook, 1986, Wiley, NY.
Arunkumar S. et al., “Enumeration of all minimal cut-sets for a node pair in a graph”, IEEE Trans. Rel., 28(1987)1, pp. 51–55.
Rajusman R., “Iddq testing for CMOS VLSI”, Proc. IEEE, 88(2000)4, pp. 544-66.
IPC-SM-785, Guidelines for Accelerated Rel. Testing of Surface Mount Solder Attachments, 1992; IPC/JEDEC J-STD-020C, Moisture/Reflow Sensitivity Classif. of Nonhermetic Solid State SMD, 2004.
Telcordia, Automated Rel. Prediction Procedure, Telcordia Technology, Red Bank NJ.: see also [1.22, 2.6, 2.18, 2.74, 2.76, 4.24, 4.32, 6.18, 6.43]
Reiner J., “Latent gate oxide defects caused by CDM-ESD”, Proc. EOS/ESD Symp, 1995, pp. 6.5.1-11, also in Jour. of Electrostatic, 38(1996) pp. 131-57; Latent Gate Oxide Damage Induced by Ultra fast Electrostatic Discharge, 1995, Ph.D. Thesis 11212, ETH Zurich; -et al. “Impact of ESD - induced soft drain junction damage on CMOS product lifetime”, Microel. Rel., 40(2000), pp. 1619-28.
Diaz C. et al., “Electrical overstress & electrostatic discharge”, IEEE Trans. Rel., 44(1995)1, pp. 2–5.
Irland E. A., “Assuring quality and reliability of complex electronic systems: Hardware and software”, Proc. IEEE, 76(1988)1, pp. 5–18.
Siewiorek D.P., “Architecture of fault-tolerant computers”, Proc. IEEE, 79(1991)12, pp. 1710–34; -et al., Reliable Computer Systems Design and Evaluation, 1992 (3d Ed. 1998), Dig. Press, Bedford MA.
Hu C. et al., “A unifield gate oxide rel. model”, Proc. Int. Rel. Phys. Symp., 1999, pp. 47-51; “Exp. evidence for V-driven breakdown in ultra thin gate ox.”, Proc. Int. Rel. Phys. Symp., 2000, pp. 7-15.
Herrmann M., Charge Loss Modeling of EPROMs with ONO Interpoly Dielectric, 1994, Ph.D. Thesis 10817, ETH Zurich; -et al., “Field and high-temperature dependence of the long-term charge loss in EPROMs”, J. Appl. Phys., 77(1995)9, pp. 4522-40.
IEC 62137 (2004): Test Methods for Surface-Mounted Boards., -1-1 to -1-4 (2007–2009): Specific Test Proceduress, -3 (in prepration): Solder Joints.
van de Goor A.J, Testing Semiconductor Memories, 1991, Wiley, NY.
O'Connor P.D.T., Practical Reliability Engineering, 3th Ed. 1991, Wiley, NY.
Gymayr J., et al., “Fault-tree analysis: a knowledge-engineering approach”, IEEE Trans. Rel., 44(1995)1, pp. 37–45.
Degraeve R., et al., “On the field depend. of intrinsic and extrinsic time-dep. dielectric breakdown”, Proc. Int. Rel. Phys. Symp., 1996, pp. 44-54.
Hellström S., ESD-The Scourge of Electronics, 1998, Springer, Berlin.
MIL-STD-1629: Procedures for performing a FMECA, Ed. A 1980.
Dugan J.B. et al., “Dynamic fault tree models for fault tolerant comp. syst.”, IEEE Trans. Rel., 41(1992), pp. 363–77 (see also Rel. Eng. & Syst. Safety, 39(1993), pp. 291–307); “Developing a lowcost high-quality software tool for dyn. fault-tree anal.”, IEEE Trans. Rel., 49(2000), pp. 49–59.
Chandra M.J., Statistical Quality Control, 2001, CRC Press, NY.
Sahner R. et al., “Rel. modeling using SHARPE”, IEEE Trans. Rel. 36(1987), pp. 186–93.
Taguchi G., System of Experimental Design-Engineering Methods to Optimize Quality and Minimize Costs, Vol. 1 & 2., 1987, Unipub, White Plains NY.
Barker D.B., Dasgupta A., Pecht M., “Printed-wiring-board solder-joint fatigue-life calculation under thermal and vibration loading”, Proc. Ann. Rel. & Maint. Symp., 1991, pp. 451-59.
FIDES Guide 2009: Rel. Methodology for Electronic Systems, Paris (www.fides-reliability.org).
IEEE, Special issues on: Reliability of Semiconductor Devices, Proc. IEEE, 62(1974)2; Micron and Submicron Circuit Engineering, Proc. IEEE, 71(1983)5; Integrated circuit technologies of the future, Proc. IEEE, 74(1986)12; VLSI Reliability, Proc. IEEE, 81(1993)5.
Gieser H.A. et al., “A CDM reproducible field degradation and its reliability aspects”, Proc. ESREF’93, Bordeaux, 5 pp., see also Qual. & Rel. Eng. International, 10(1994)4, pp. 341-45.
IEEE, Special issue on: 50th Anniversary IEEE Rel. Soc., IEEE Trans. Rel., 47(1998)3-SP.
RAC, WCCA: Worst Case Circuit Analysis Appl. Guidelines, 1993; RTMG: Thermal Manag. Guidebook, 1995; RADC-TR-90-109: Integration of Sneak Analysis with Design, 1990; Reliability Toolkit: Commercial Practices Edition, 1995, RAC, Rome NY.
Price C.J. et al., “Identifying design glitches through automated design analysis”, Proc. Ann. Rel. & Maint. Symp., 1999, pp. 277-82.
Myers A.F., “k-out-of-n:G system reliability with imperfect fault coverage”, IEEE Trans. Rel., 56(2007)3, pp. 464–73.
Bryant R.E., “A graph based algorithm for Boolean function manip.”, IEEE Trans. Comp., 35(1986)8, pp. 677–91; “Symbolic Boolean manip. with ordered BDD”, ACM Comp. Surv., 24(1992), pp. 293–318.
Weber L., Material- & Schädigungsmod. bei Pb-Zn-Ag-Lot, 1996, Rep.K10, ETH Zurich, Rel. Lab.; Creep-fatigue behavior of eutectic Sn62Pb36Ag2 solder, 1997, Ph. D. Thesis 12251, ETH Zurich.
Rooney J.P., “Storage reliability”, Proc. Ann. Rel. & Maint. Symp., 1989, pp. 178–182.
Prasad V.R. et al., “Rel. optimiz. of coherent systems”, IEEE Trans. Rel., 49(2000), pp. 323–30.
Glasstone S., Laidler K.J., Eyring H.E., The Theory of Rate Processes, 1941, McGraw-Hill, NY.
RAC, PSAC: Parts Selection, Application and Control, 1993; CAP: Reliable Appl. of Components, 1993; PEM2: Reliable Appl. of Microcircuits, 1996; HYB: Reliable Appl. of Hybrids, 1993; MCM: Reliable Appl. of Multichip Modules, 1995; Rel. of Compound Semiconductor Analogue ICs, 2006.
Ratchev D., “Are NV-Mem. non-volatile?” Proc. 1993 IEEE Workshop on Memory Test., pp. 102-06.
Desplas E.P., “Rel. in the manufacturing cycle”, Proc. Ann. Rel. & Maint. Symp., 1986, pp. 139–44.
Gerling W., “Modern reliability assurance of integrated circuits”. Proc. ESREF’90, Bari, pp. 1–12.
Gardner J.R., “The appropriateness of plastic encapsulated microcircuits in a specific wooden-round application”, IEEE Trans. Rel., 45(1996)1, pp. 10–17.
Lantz L., “Soft errors induced by α - particles”, IEEE Trans. Rel., 45 (1996)2, pp. 174-79.
SR-332: Rel. Prediction Procedure for El. Equip., Issue 3 planned, Telcordia Technol., Red Bank NJ.: see also [1.22, 3.1, 3.10, 3.15, 358, 3.66]; for Bellcore see
Xing L., “Rel. evaluation of phased-mission systems with imperfect fault coverage and common-cause failures”, IEEE Trans. Rel., 56(2007)1, pp. 58–68.: see also [2.97, 6.0–6.80]
Zinke O. et al., Widerstände, Kondensatoren Spulen und ihre Werkstoffe, 1982, Springer, Berlin. see also [5.1-5.20, 8.21-8.35]
Bogdanoff J.L. et al., Probabilistic Models for Cumulative Damage, 1985, Wiley, NY.
Ghidini G. et al., “Charge trapping mechanism under dynamic stress and their effect on failure time”, Proc. Int. Rel. Phys. Symp., 1999, pp. 88-92.
Cluzeau, T. et al., “An efficient algorithm for computing the rel, of consecutive k-out-of-n: F systems”, IEEE Trans. Rel., 57(2008)1, pp. 84–87.
Jacob P. et al., “Reliability Testing and Analysis of IGBT Power Semiconductor Modules”, Proc. ISTFA’94, Los Angeles CA 1994, pp. 319–25.
Fantini F., “Reliability and failure physics of integrated circuits”, in Dinemite II, (Vol. IV), Interuniversitair Micro-Elektronica Centrum, 1986, Leuven, pp. 1-30.
Jaeger H., “RAMTOOL”, Proc. ETH/IEEE Int. Symp. on Rel. Eng. 2’000, ETH Zurich, Rel. Lab., Oct. 17, 1996; Zuverlässigheit und Materialerhaltbarkeit, Bundesakad. W.W., Mannheim, 1998.
Bowles J.B. et al., “Comparison of commercial reliability-prediction programs”, Proc. Ann. Rel. & Maint. Symp., 1990, pp. 450–55.
Krishna C.M. et al., “Optimal configuration of redundant real-time systems in the face of correlated failures”, IEEE Trans. Rel., 44(1995)4, pp. 587–94.
Pecht M. et al., Contamination of Electronic Assemblies, 2002, CRC Press, NY.
Jud P. et al., “Local creep in SNAg3.8Cu0.7 lead-free solder”, J. Electr. Mater., 34(2005)9, pp. 1206–14.
Somani A.K. et al., “Computational-efficient phased-mission reliability analysis for systems with variable configurations”, IEEE Trans. Rel., 41(1992)4, pp. 504–11.
Birolini A., “Spare parts reservation of components subjected to wear-out or fatigue according to a Weibull disturb.”, Nuclear Eng. & Design, 27(1974), pp. 293–98; “Basic Stoch. Models for a Cost Optim. Spare Parts Provision”, Inv. Paper Ann. Conv. AICE 2000, Univ. Bocconi Milano, pp. 1–16.
Ciardo G. et al., “A decomposition approach for stochastic reward net models”, Performance Eval., 18(1993)4, pp. 37–59.
Bansal V.K., “Minimal path-sets and minimal cut-sets using search techniques”, Microel. & Rel., 22(1982)6, pp. 1067–1075.
Tullmin M. et al., “Corrosion of metallic materials”, IEEE Trans. Rel., 44 (1995)2, pp. 271–78.
Fung R.C.-Y. et al., “Latch-up model for the parasitic p-n-p-n path in bulk CMOS”, IEEE Trans. El. Devices, 31(1984)1, pp. 113-20.
RAC, FMECA, 1993; FTA, 1990; WCCA (Worst Case Circuit Analysis), 1992.
Amerasekera E., Campbell D., Failure Mechanisms in Semiconductor Devices. 1987, Wiley, NY.
Birolini A., “Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der Qualifikation, Prüfung und Vorbehandlung von ICs”, QZ, 27(1982)11, pp. 321–26; “Prüfung und Vorbehandlung von Bauelem. und bestück. Leiterplatten”, VDI/VDE Fachtagung, Karlsruhe 1984, VDI Bericht Nr. 519, pp. 49–61; “Neue Ergebnisse aus der Qualif. grosser Halbleiterspeicher”, me, 7(1993) 2, pp. 98–102; - et al., “Test and screening strategies for large memories”, 1st European Test Conf., Paris: 1989, pp. 276–83.
Goedbloed J.J., Electromagnetic Compatibility, 1992, Prentice Hall, NY.
Seghezzi H.D. (Ed.), Top Management and Quality, 1992, Hanser, Munich.
Tomek L. et al., “Rel. models of fife-critical real-time systems”, Proc IEEE, 79(1994)1, pp. 108–21.: see also [1.22, 2.31–2.49, 2.61–2.98, 5.1–5.101, 6.0–6.80, A2.1–A2.13]
Choi, H. et al., “Markov regenerative stochastic Petri nets”, Performance Ev., 20(1994), pp. 337–57.
Lin H-Y. et al., “Efficient algorithm for space alloca. prob.”, IEEE Trans. Rel., 55(2006)2, pp. 369-78.
Frear D.R. (Ed.), The Mechanics of Solder Alloy Interconnections, 1994, Van Nostrand Reinh, NY.
Lewis E.E., “A load-capacity interference model for common-mode failures in 1-out-of-2: G systems”, IEEE Trans. Rel., 50(2001)1, pp. 47–51.
Kusiak A. (Ed.), Concurrent Engineering: Automation, Tools and Techniques, 1993, Wiley, NY.
Li E. et al., “Hot carrier effects in nMOSFETs in 0.1 μm CMOS tech.”, Proc. Int. Rel. Phys. Symp., 1999, pp. 253-8; “Hot carrier ind. degr. in subμ dev.”, Proc. Int. Rel. Phys. Symp., 2000, pp. 103-7.
Barlow R.E. et al., Mathematical Theory of Reliability, 1965, Wiley, NY; Statistical Theory of Reliability and Life Testing, 1975, Holt Rinehart, NY.
Engelmaier, W., “Environmental stress screening and use environments - their impact on solder joint and plated-through-hole rel.”, Proc. Int. Electronics Pack. Conf., Marlborough MA, 1990, pp. 388-93.
RAC/RL, Reliability Toolkit: Commercial Practices Edition, 1995, RAC, Rome NY;, Maintainability Toolkit, 1999, RAC, Rome NY.
RAC, FMD: Failure Mode/Mechanism Distribution, 1991; MFAT-1: Microelectronics Failure Analysis Tech., 1981; MFAT-2: GaAs Microcircuit Charact. & Failure Anal. Techn, 1988; Rel. of Compound Semicond. Analo. ICs, 2006.
Garnero M.A. et al., “Optimization of bearing-inspection intervals”, Proc. Ann. Rel. & Maint. Symp., 1998, pp. 332–38.
Boxleitner W., “Electrostatic Discharge” in Electronic Equip., 1989, IEEE Press, Piscataway NJ.
MIL-HDBK-217: Reliability Prediction of Electronic Equipment, Revision G, Draft 8/5/2009.
Glasser G.J., “The age replacement problem”, Technometrics, 9(1967), pp. 83–91.
Miner M.A., “Cumulative damage in fatigue”, J. of Appl. Mech., 12(1945)Sept., pp. A159-64.
Jackson T., “Integrated sneak circuit analysis and FMEA”, Proc. Ann. Rel. & Maint. Symp., 1986, pp. 408–14.
DIN 25419: Stöfallablaufanalyse, 1977–79; 25424: Fehlerbaumanalyse, 1981; 25448: Ausfalleffektanalyse, 1980; 31000: Allg. Leit. für das sicherheitsgerechte Gestalten tech. Erzeug., 1979.
Birolini A. et al., “Exp. Ergebnisse zur Q. & Z. der SMT mit Pitch 0.5 mm”, me, (1995)5, pp. 28-33.
Wu W. et al., “dv/dt induced latching failure in IGBT’s”, Proc. Int. Rel. Phys. Symp., 1994, pp. 420–24; “Investigation on the long term rel. of power IGBT modules”, Proc. ISPSD 95, 1995, pp. 443–48.: see also [5.4, 5.18, 8.21–8.35]
Gay T.F. (Ed.), Product Liability in Europe, 1993, 2nd Ed., ORGALIME, Brussels.
IEC 60410: Sampling Plans and Procedures for Inspection by Attributes (1973); see also MIL-STD-105, -414, -1235, DIN 40080, DGQ-SAQ-OeVQ 16–01, ISO 2859.
Mattana G., Qualità, Affidabilità, Certificazione, 14th Ed. 2005, Angeli, Milano.
DGQ 16-31/-32/-33: SPC 1/2/3 Statistische Prozesslenkung, 1990.
Peck D.S., “Comprehensive model for humidity testing correlation”, Proc. Int. Rel. Phys. Symp., 1986, pp. 44-50; -et al., “Highly accelerated stress Tutorial Int. Rel. Phys. Symp., 1990, pp. 4.1-27.
Bonivento C. et al., “A framework for reliability analysis of complex diagnostic systems”, Proc. 5th IFAC Symp. on Fault Detection, Supervision & Safety of tech. processes, 2003, pp. 567–72.
Chen P., et al., “A unified compact scalable ΔId model for hot carrier reliability simulation”, Proc. Int. Rel. Phys. Symp., 1999, pp. 243–48.
Pawling J.F. (Ed.), Surface Mounted Assemblies, 1987, Electrochemical Publ., Ayr (Scotland).
Schneeweiss W., The Fault Tree Method, 1999, LiLoLe, Hagen.
Freddi S., Design of Experiment, Course at the 15th Symp. Danubia-Adria, Bertinoro, 1998.
Hu C. (Ed.), Nonvolatile Semicond. Mem.: Tech., Design, Appl., 1991, IEEE Press, Piscataway NJ.
Fenech A. et al., “Determination of thermomechanical behavior of microel. packaging based on mictostructural analysis”, Proc. ESREF” 94, Glasgow, 1994, pp. 405-10.
Gallo A.A. et al., “Popcorning: A failure mechanism in plastic-encapsulated microcircuits”, IEEE Trans. Rel., 44(1995)3, pp. 362–67.
Schneeweiss W., Boolean Functions with Eng. Applications & Comp. Progr. 1989, Springer, Berlin.
IEC 60068-1 to -5 (1971–2009): Environmental Testing; 60319 (1999): Presentation and Spec. of Rel. Data for El. Comp.; 60721-1 to -4 (1982–2008): Classification of Envir. Cond.; 60749-1 to -39 (2002–2009): Semiconductor Devices - Mech. and Climatic Test Methods; 61000-1 to -6 (1990–2009): Electromag. Compatibility (EMC); see also QC 001001 (2000): Basic Rules of IEC Quality Assessment Syst. for Electron. Comp. (IECQ), QC 001002–1006, QC 200000, QC 210000.
Grossmann G., Zuv. von Weichlotstellen, 1993, Rep. L29, ETH Zurich, Rel. Lab.; Produktion und Prüfung von Testprints der SMT Fine Pitch, 1996, Rep. K12, ETH Zurich, Rel. Lab.; “Metallurgical consid. for acc. testing of el. equip.”, IEEE Trans. Comp., Pack. & Manuf. Technol., 20(1997)2, pp. 213–18; “The deformation of Sn62Pb36Ag2 and its impl. on the design of thermal cycling for el. assemblies”, IEEE Trans. CMPT, 22(1999)1, pp. 71–79; “Accelerated testing methodology for lead-free solder” in Lead-Free Solder Interconnect Rel., ed. D. Shangguan, 2005, ASM Int., Ohio; Zuverlässigkeit von Weichloten, Ostbairisches Technologie Transfer Inst., Regensburg, 38 pp., 2008; - et al., “Proper. of thin layers of Sn62Pb36Ag2”, Proc. 1995 IEMT Symp., pp. 502–07; “Metallurgical consid. for accel. testing of el. equip.”, Proc. 1996 IEMT Symp., pp. 298–304; “Lifetime ass. of soft sold. joints on the base of the behav. of Sn62Pb36Ag2”, Proc. 1997 IEMT Symp., pp. 256–63; “Results of comparative rel. tests on lead-free solder alloys”, Proc 2002 ECTC Symp., 1232–37.
Dieci D., et al., “Breakdown and degradation issues and the choice of a safe load line for power HFET operation”, Proc. Int. Rel. Phys. Symp., 2000, pp. 258-63.
Manson S.S., Thermal Stress and Low-Cycle Fatigue, 1981, Krieger, Malabar FL.
Grossmann G., “Contamination of various flux-cleaning combinations on SMT assemblies, Soldering & SMT, 22 (1996) Feb., pp. 16–21;
Sawada K. et al., “An evaluation of IDDQ versus conventional testing for CMOS sea-of-gate ICs”, Int. Test Conf., 1992, pp. 158-67.
Schuegraf K.F. et al., “Reliability of thin SiO2”, Semicond. Sci. Technol., 9(1994), pp. 989-1004.
Jacob P., private commun. 2005/2009, peter.jacob@empa.ch; “Poly-si extensions and etching residues as a rel. risk” Microsyst Technol, 15(2009)1, pp. 169-74; “Surface ESD in assembly fab mach. as a functional and rel. risk”, Microel. Rel., 48(2008), pp. 1608-12; -et al. “FIB voltage contrast localization & analysis of contac-via-chains”, Proc. SPIE, Edinburgh 1999, pp. 273-79; “Electrostatic effects on semiconductor tools”, Microel. Rel., 44(2004), pp. 1787-92; “Electrostatic discharge directly to the chip surface, caused by autom. post-wafer processing”, Microel. Rel., 45(2005), pp. 1174-80; “Manuf.-robotics-induced damages on semicond. dies”, Proc. IPFA 2005, pp. 307-12; “Unusual defects, generated by wafer sawing”, Microel. Rel., 48(2008), pp. 1253-57; “Reading distance degradation mechanism of near-field RFID devices”, Microel. Rel., 49(2009), pp. 1288-92.
Pozsgai P. et al., “SYSLEB: A Tool for the Calculation of the System Reliability from raw Failure Data”, Proc. Ann. Rel. & Maint. Symp., 2002, pp. 542–49.
Kossow A. et al., “Failure probability of strict consecutive-k-out-of-n: F systems”, IEEE Trans. Rel., 36(1987)5, pp. 551–53; “Rel. of consecutive-k-out-of-n: F systems with nonidentical component rel.”, IEEE Trans. Rel., 38(1989), pp. 229–33; “Mean time to failure for linear-consec.-k-out-of-n: F systems”, IEEE Trans. Rel., 40(1991)3, pp. 271–72; “Rel. of linear consecutive connected systems with multistate comp.”, IEEE Trans. Rel., 44(1995)3, pp. 518–22.
Feo T., “PAFT F77: Program for the anal. of fault trees”, IEEE Trans. Rel., 35(1986)1, pp. 48–50.
Darveause R. et al., “Constitutive relations for tin-based solder joints.”, IEEE Trans. Compon., Pack., and Manuf. Technol., 15(1992)6, pp. 1013-24.
Juran J.M., et al., (Eds)., Quality Control Handbook, 4th Ed. 1988, McGraw-Hill, NY.
Reynolds F., “Thermally Accelerated Aging of Semic. Comp.”, Proc. IEEE., 62(1974)2, pp. 212-22.
Solomon H.D. et al. (Ed.), Low Cycle Fatigue, 1988, ASTM, Philadelphia.
Sarkadi K. et al., Mathematical Methods of Statistical Quality Control, 1974. Academ Press, NY.
Von Neumann J., “Probabilistic logic’s and the synthesis of reliable organisms from unreliable components”, Ann. of Math. Studies, 34(1956), pp. 43–98.
Bell. H. et al., Reflow Technology: Fundamentals of Reflow Soldering, 2009, Rehm Thermal Systems, D 89143, Blaubeuren, Germany
Barer R.D., Why Metals Fail, 3rd Ed. 1974, Gordon & Breach, NY.
Kuo W. et al., “An annotated overview of system reliability optimization”, IEEE Trans. Rel., 49(2000)2, pp. 176–87.
Esary J.D. et al., “Relationship between system failure rate and component failure rates”, Technometrics 5(1963)2, pp. 183–189; Coherent structures of non-identical components” Technometrics 5(1963)2, pp. 191–209.
Masing W. (Ed), Handbuch der Qualitätssicherung, 2nd Ed. 1988, Hanser, Munich.
IEC TR 62380: Reliability Data Handbook, 2004 (formerly RDF 2000/UTE C80–810: Recueil de Données de Fiabilité, 2000, CNET Lannion).
Dylis D.D. et al., “A comprehensive reliability assessment tool for electronic systems”, Proc. Ann. Rel. & Maint. Symp., 2001, pp. 308–13.
SAQ-DGQ-OeVQ, DGQ16–01: Attributprüfung 9th Ed. 1986; 16–26: Meth. zur Ermittlung geeigneter AQL-Werte. 4rd Ed. 1990; 16–31/–32/–33: SPC 1/2/3 Stat. Prozesslenkung, 1990.
RIAC-HDBK-217Plus: Handbook 217Plus Rel. Prediction Models, 2008, RIAC, Utica, NY
Carrasco J.A. et al., “An algorithm to find minimal cuts of coherent fault-trees with event-classes using a decision tree”, IEEE Trans. Rel., 48(1999)1, pp. 31–41.
Beaudry D., “Performance-related rel. meas. for comp. syst.”, IEEE Trans. Comp., 27(1978), pp. 540–7.
Item, Item Toolkit for RAMS, 2001, Item Software, Fareham, Hampshire UK.
ETH Zurich Reliability Lab., Reports Q2-Q12: Qualification Test for DRAMs 256Kx1, SRAMS 32Kx8, EPROMs 32Kx8, SRAMs 8Kx8, DRAMs 1Mx1, EEPROMs 8Kx8, SRAMs 128Kx8, DRAMs 4Mx1, EEPROMs 32Kx8, EPROMs 64Kx16, and FLASH-EPROMs 128Kx8. 1989–92.
Tammaro M., “The role of copper in electromigration”, Proc. Int. Rel. Phys. Symp., 2000, pp. 317-23.
Bondavalli A. et al., “Dependability modeling and evaluation of multipli-phased systems using DEEM“, IEEE Trans. Rel., 53(2004)4, pp. 509–22.
Thomas R.W., “The US Department of Defense procurement strategy and the semiconductor industry in the 1990’s”, Proc. 4th Int. Conf. Quality in El. Comp., Bordeaux 1989, pp. 1-3.
Murari B. et al., Smart Power ICs: Technologies and Applications, 1996, Springer, Berlin.
Hall F.M. et al., “Hardware/Software FMECA”, Proc. Ann. Rel. & Maint. Symp., 1983, pp. 320–27.
Powell R.F., Testing Active and Passive Electronic Components, 1987, Dekker, NY.
Pecht M.G. et al., Guidebook for Managing Silicon Chip Reliability, 1999, CRC Press, NY.
Redinbo G.R., “Reliability level for fault-tolerant linear processing using real number error correcting”, IEE Proc. Comput. Dig. Tech., 143(1996)6, pp. 366–73.
Bellcore SR-TSY-001171, Methods and Procedures for System Reliability Analysis, 1989.
Padgett W.J., “A multiplicative damage model for strength of fibrous composite materials”, IEEE Trans. Rel., 47(1998)1, pp. 46–52.
Nelson J. et al., “Rel. models for mech. equip.”, Proc. Ann. Rel. & Maint. Symp., 1989, pp. 146–53.
RDF 96: Recueil Données de Fiabilité des Comp. Electroniques, 1996, Thomson-CSF, Grenoble.
Lee J.H. et al, “Using erase self-detrapped effect to eliminate the flash cell program/erase cycling Vth window close”, Proc. Int. Rel. Phys. Symp., 1999, pp. 24-29.
Kolesar S.C., “Principles of corrosion”, Proc. Int. Rel. Phys. Symp., 1974, pp. 155-67.
Heiduschke K., “The logarithmic strain space description”, Int. J. Solids Structures, 32 (1995), pp. 1047–62 and 33(1996) pp. 747–60; Kontinuumsmech. und Finite Element Mod. (URMEL), 1996, Report K11, ETH Zurich, Rel. Lab.; - et al., “Modeling fatigue cracks with spatial shape”, Proc. EuPac ’94, pp. 16–23; “Damage and micro-crack evolution in SMT joints”, Proc. EuPac ’96, pp. 112–15.
Billinton R. et al., Reliability Evaluation of Power Systems, 1996, Plenum Press, NY; Reliability Assessment of Electric Power Systems using Monte Carlo Methods, 1994, Plenum Press, NY.
RAC, NPS: Mechanical Applications in Reliability Engineering, 1993, Rome NY.: see also [2.26, 2.27, 3.53, 3.70-3.92]
White M. et al., Microelectronics Reliability: Physics-of-Failure Based Modeling and Lifetime Evaluation, NASA WBS: 939904.01.11.10, JPL Publ. 08-5 2/08, 2008.: see also [1.19, 2.27 (TR), 2.61-2.77, 3.1, 3.3, 3.6, 3.10, 3.12, 3.16, 3.70-3.93]
Bowles J.B., “The new SAE FMECA Std”, Proc. Ann. Rel. & Maint. Symp., 1998, pp. 48–53; - et al., “Software FMEA for small embedded control syst.,” Proc. Ann. Rel. & Maint. Symp., 2001, pp. 1–6.
IRPH 2003: Italtel Reliability Prediction HDBK, 2003, Italtel, Milano.
Beitz W. et al. (Ed.), Handbook of Mechanical Engineering, 1994, Springer, Berlin.
Lea C., A Scientific Guide to SMT, 1988, Electrochemical Publ., Ayr (Scotland).
Relex, Visual Reliability Software, 2001, Relex Software, Greensburg PA.
NSWC-07: HDBK of Reliability Prediction Procedures for Mechanical Equipment, 2007, Naval Surface Warfare Center-Carderock Division, Bethesda MA.
Carter A.D.S., Mechanical Reliability, 2nd Ed. 1986, Macmillan, London.
Turconi G., “Ulysses, Scylla, Charybdis - and the Story of reliability”, Proc. Ann. Rel. & Main. Symp., 2002, pp. 135–39.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2010 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Birolini*, A. (2010). Qualification Tests for Components and Assemblies. In: Reliability Engineering. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-14952-8_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-14952-8_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-642-14951-1
Online ISBN: 978-3-642-14952-8
eBook Packages: EngineeringEngineering (R0)