Abstract
A hallmark of the modern era has been the state and its monopoly control of force — not just within its territory, but also abroad. States have exercised control over the force that emanates from their territory by marshalling the violent services of their citizens in citizen armies (restricting their use on behalf of other states or non-state actors) and regulating trade in weapons and other instruments of violence (Thomson 1994; Avant 2000; Krause 1992). Increasingly, however, citizens have begun to market their violent services along side weapons systems. In the 1990s private security companies (PSCs), touting themselves as legitimate, law-abiding corporations, sold military and security services to states and non-state actors all over the world. How does the thriving market for force affect states’ ability to control force?
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References
Though the private security industry is global and many firms hire more than one nationality, I attribute a firm to a particular nation if it is owned or managed by citizens of that nation. For a similar strategy of national attribution see Porter 1990.
I am using power in its classic sense — the ability of A to get B to do what he would otherwise not do (see Simon 1953). A political structure sets the terms by which people compete for power and changes in those structures, or evasion of them, redistributes power among political actors.
“US Firm to take over state defense group,” Financial Times, 5 September 2002; “Is Big Business Bad for Our Boys?” The Guardian 2 March 2003; http://www.mod.uk/business/index.html; http://www.halIiburton.com/gov_ops/sl0252.jsp
Interviews with State Department Officials, July 1999.
Interviews with State Department Officials, July 1999.
Interview with State Department Official, August 1999. Under Section 40A of the Arms Export Control Act, there is a requirement that the Office of Defense Trade Controls monitor the end use of licensed transactions. This, so called, Blue Lantern Program did result in 410 checks in FY 2001 and 71 unfavorable determinations. See “End Use Monitoring Report for FY 2001.” available at http://pmdtc.org/docs/End_Use_FY2001.pdf (retrieved October 2002).
Interview with Ed Soyster and Carl Vuono, 27 October 2000.
Interview with General Carl Vuono, 27 October 2000.
Interviews with personnel working for MPRI.
Interview with Ed Soyster, MPRI, 1 December 1998.
Interview with State Department Official, January 1999.
Interview with State Department Official, January 1999.
Interview with Ed Soyster, MPRI, April 2000, Interview with Bennett Freeman, Department of State, Office of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, 24 April 2000.
Interview with former South African government official February 2000.
Interview with Rocky Williams, ISS, 28 February 2000.
Interviews with South African academics, government officials, and former government officials in February/March 2000.
Interviews with INGO personnel in Washington, January 2000, interviews with journalists and PSC personnel in Pretoria and Johannesburg, South Africa, March 2000.
Interview with PSC personnel in Pretoria, March 2000. “Oil Companies to Hire Mercenaries to Protect Oil Fields,” Africa News Service, 25 November 1996. In February 2002, NCACC (chaired by Kadar Asmal) announced investigation into NFD’s work in Sudan.
Interview with PSC personnel in Pretoria, March 2000. “South African security consultant in Angola murdered for food,” Reuters, 10 August 2000.
Interview with former South African government official, February 2000; interview with South African academic, March 2000.
Interview with Mark Malan, February 2000; interview with South African defense official, 7 March 2000.
Interview with defense official, South Africa, 7 March 2000.
Interviews with PSC personnel in Pretoria and Johannesburg, February and March 2000.
“Can Anyone Curb Africa’s Dogs of War?” The Economist, 16 January 1999: 41.
Interview with South African government official, 4 March 2000.
According to Kader Asmal, NCACC chairman, “the government has become aware that South African citizens and South African companies may be rendering security and related services in Iraq”. “South Africa: Authorities Target Alleged Mercenaries,” UN IRIN-SA 4 February 2004.
See “South Africa: Lekota Conceded Problems in Bill on Mercenary Activity,” Africa News, 9 November 2005; International Comments regarding the South African Prohibition of Mercenary Activity Bill, 2005, http://www.ipoaonline.org/news/legislative/display.cfm?ID=294
Interview with Chris Grove, NFD, 29 February 2000.
Interview with Chris Grove, NFD, 29 February 2000.
Interview with Chris Grove, NFD, 29 February 2000.
Interview with Rocky Williams, February 2000; interview with Jackie Cock, February 2000; interview with South African defense officials, March 2000.
Interview with Rocky Williams, February 2000; interview with Jackie Cock, February 2000; interview with South African defense officials, March 2000.
As of 1998, British defense expenditure had dropped 23% in real terms since 1990. (UK MoD 1998).
See also “UK Outlines Revised Plans to Privatise Defense Research,” Jane’s Defense Weekly, 26 March 2000.
Interview with Rt. Hon. Bruce George MP, Chairman House of Commons Defense Select Committee, 31 May 2000; Interview with FCO officials, September 1999; interview with MoD officials, September 1999; “Army to Privatise Some Key Units,” The Guardian, 14 February 1999.
Interview with Noel Philip, Managing Director of DSL, London, 2 June 2000; interview with Michael Grunberg, advisor to Sandline, London, 31 May 2000.
Interview with Michael Grunberg, advisor to Sandline, 31 May 2000.
Tim Spicer’s comments, 17 March 2000.
They are among the 15 “Essential Security Providers” for Iraq. See http://issues.topikmail.com/gingg/?I=2008.
Arsenel is Bulgaria’s largest state owned arms manufacturer known for the quality of its AK-47 assault rifles. See “FO Muddle Leaves Boss on Firing Line,” Sunday Times, 17 May 1998 (FOCUS).
“Sierra Leone: Second Report,” Foreign Affairs Committee, House of Commons, Session 1998–99, Vol. I, p. vi.
Interview with former MoD official, London, 30 May 2000; interview with Noel Philip of DSL, 2 June 2000.
This sentiment was expressed in interviews with members of the FCO, MoD and HOC, September 1999 and June 2001.
Interviews with British Army and Navy officers, September 1999, June 2000. Though they rarely suggested competition with PSCs would infringe on their turf, several suggested that it would be inappropriate to outsource such a task.
Interviews with employees at Sandline and DSL and with officials at MoD, FCO and HOC, September 1999 and June 2001.
Interviews with employees at Sandline and DSL and with officials at MoD, FCO and HOC, September 1999 and June 2001.
Interview with Tim Spicer (Sandline), March 2000; interview with Michael Grunberg (consultant to Sandline), June 2000; interview with Noel Philip (DSL), June 2000.
Interviews with officials at Sandline, DSL, June 2001.
Interviews with employees at Sandline and DSL and with officials at MoD, FCO and HOC, September 1999 and June 2001.
Interviews with employees at Sandline and DSL and with officials at MoD, FCO and HOC, September 1999 and June 2001.
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Avant, D. (2007). Selling Security: Trade-Offs in State Regulation of the Private Security Industry. In: Jäger, T., Kümmel, G. (eds) Private Military and Security Companies. VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-531-90313-2_27
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