Security Perceptions of Tourists in the Aftermath of Terrorist Attacks

Abstract

These days, terror attacks seem to be part of our daily life. The press reports consistently about new terrorist attacks around the globe, which in turn has an impact on people’s way of life, as it strongly affects their perception and feeling of safety and security. Due to the fact, that security perceptions are a major determinant of travel behaviour, cancellations of trips and a drop of bookings in affected regions are merely the obvious potential consequences. Nevertheless, there are numerous other factors, which seem to have an even higher impact on tourist’s security perception. Examples for these factors are the political situation as well as the culture and religion dominant at a destination. These factors can have a positive as well as a negative impact. For tourism destinations and their stakeholders, this implies that fostering a feeling of safety for their guests is of paramount importance for the economic sustainability of the local/regional tourism sector.

1 Introduction

In a globally driven market with a large number of products, it is essential for suppliers to identify the needs and desires of potential customers. One main element of these needs and wishes is the psychological perspective. The more intangible a good is, the more important is the trust factor. Intangible goods, such as services in general and holidays in particular, cannot be tested in advance, so consumers need to trust the supplier, who is selling only a description of how the vacation might look like (Nepomuceno et al. 2014).

In tourism, one main factors of holiday decision-making is the tourists’ safety and security perceptions. Perception can be influenced in many ways (Reisinger and Mavondo 2005). One influencing factor is the occurrence of terrorist attacks; but there can be several other factors that contribute to a feeling of insecurity (Lepp and Gibson 2003). In the following we aim at examining those factors and subsequently formulating tentative hypotheses for further research.

2 Research Method

First, a literature review was conducted to synthesise relevant findings derived from former studies, while key themes and research gaps were identified. Due to the fact that the selected topic is rather complex and just experienced travellers, who were already confronted with the issue of security, are able to give a usable and valid feedback, the qualitative research method was adopted.

The data collection method employed consists of conducting and coding data from semi-structured interviews of experienced travellers. The ultimate aim is the creation of a rich picture describing what could be valid for the main part of society. The results of this study, may contribute to measuring the effectiveness of security measures, beyond the deterrence of terrorist attacks, as to include the dimension of instilling a feeling of safety and security for guests.

3 Literature Review

3.1 Introduction

Currently, new terrorist attacks around the globe are proliferating the news and media. Often these terrorist attacks take place at holiday destinations. One major reason for this, is the guaranteed international media coverage, given that the victims are mainly tourists from different places of the world (Paraskevas and Arendell 2007). The tourism sector is highly vulnerable to crises such as wars or terrorism. Even if the tourism industry itself (e. g. hotels or tourist beaches) has not actually been a target of an attack, there is still an impact on the industry, especially at the destination that had been attacked (Kılıçlar et al. 2017).

3.2 Definition Terrorism

Terrorism is “the unlawful use of violence and intimidation, especially against civilians, in the pursuit of political aims” (Oxford English Dictionary 2005, p. 785). This definition of terrorism was published in the year 2005. It illustrates the focus and scope shift of terrorism during the last years. In former times, political agendas and conflicts seemed to be the main motive for terror activities. Today, as the terror group the “Islamic State” (IS) is mainly in charge for the biggest parts of ongoing attacks, the definition is not as clear anymore. This group is operating on the fundament of religious conviction and not mainly because of political reasons, even though they abhor the western values including the political direction (Galloway 2016).

Therefore, an adapted definition which is fitting modern terrorism was published at the online dictionary: vocabulary.com. This definition states that a terrorist attack is “the calculated use of violence (or the threat of violence) against civilians in order to attain goals that are political or religious or ideological in nature; this is done through intimidation or coercion or instilling fear” (vocabulary.com, n.d.).

3.3 Definition Risk Perception in the Tourism Industry

Risk perception can be defined as the fear of being injured, experience an unwanted dangerous situation or the potential loss of something important (Reisinger and Mavondo 2005). There are several factors that have an impact on tourists’ risk perceptions; particularly in terms of safety and security. The main influencing factors investigated by former studies are: terrorism, war, political instability as well as health concerns, criminality (Lepp and Gibson 2003), weather and social hazards. As risk perceptions tend to be subjective, it can vary from tourist to tourist, due to several individual characteristics (Reisinger and Mavondo 2005). Nevertheless, fears of political unrest and/or terrorism seem to be regarded as the greatest risks for tourists (Wolff and Larsen 2013).

3.4 Terrorism and the Tourism Industry

Many destinations have suffered in the aftermath of terrorist attacks (Avraham 2016). Experts assume that destinations like Turkey, Tunisia and Egypt are not likely to recover in 2017. German tourists perceive these destinations, as well as the USA and France to be the most dangerous places at the moment (Singer 2017). Thus, the scientific work of Avraham (2016) indicates that the political instability in Egypt, and above all, the terrorist attacks within the destination are the main source of declining tourist numbers.

Most destinations recover rather fast after terrorist attacks. A single attack seems to have no long-term impact on tourist numbers. Nevertheless, the short-term effects are visible (Araῆa and León 2007; Liu and Pratt 2017). In a survey of 6000 tourists in nine different countries, 97% of the respondents indicated that while choosing a holiday destination, the factor of safety and security is highly- and increasingly-present in their mind (Singer 2017). This suggests that, when attacks occur more frequently, the destination may well suffer from long-term effects (Liu and Pratt 2017). On the other hand, tourists from Russia, the United States of America and China are more likely to tolerate the risk of terror attacks, in case a lower price of the holiday is offered (Singer 2017). But there are also winners of such crises. The tourism market at destinations like Greece, the western Mediterranean or even long-haul destinations like the Caribbean are predicted to have a significant growth in tourist numbers as these destinations are regarded as safer (Singer 2017).

3.4.1 How to Recover from Crises

To recover from crises and to increase the safety and security factor has to be the main desire of a destination. Paraskevas and Arendell (2007) indicate that it is the destination management organization’s task to create destination wide strategies in order to coordinate stakeholders and to effectively prevent terrorist attacks. These strategies shall be implemented even before incidents emerge. Therefore, destination management organizations should reflect past incidents at other destinations and proactively share crises management knowledge and experience among each other. An issue of crises management is often the absence of communication among the numerous stakeholders and the multiple ways to handle crises. Different hotels, airports, etc. at one destination often do not have a common way to implement security measures and therefore the ability to work together efficiently is not given (Paraskevas and Arendell 2007).

4 Research

4.1 Interview Participants

A total of 13 respondents, representing four different nationalities, were interviewed (2 males and 11 females). These interview respondents were of differing ages and professions (eight different professional groups). Furthermore, the interviewees were between the age of 21 and 69 years. The seemingly small number of participants was sufficient to reach data-saturation (i.e. additional interviews do not add novel aspects). At this point it is important to re-state that the purpose of this piece of research is a qualitative exploration of potential factors (tentative hypotheses) affecting security perceptions; and not their quantification and generalisation (Table 1).

Table 1 Interview respondents: sample characteristics

4.2 Category Formation (Axial Codes)

To identify the main topics of interest, the transcribed interview texts were coded line-by-line. All the interview transcripts were read line-by-line and analysed sentence-by-sentence in order to discover open codes, which were then organised and grouped into categories. From a total of 526 codes, 11 categories were formed (see Fig. 1). In Fig. 1, the ‘sources’ refer to the number of interviews where codes fitting the category were present. Furthermore, the ‘references’ indicate the total number of codes in the category. In the following pages, the key findings regarding the categories are presented and tentative hypotheses are generated on this basis.

Fig. 1

Axial codes

4.2.1 Terrorism

Terrorism got on a new stage during the last years. Having a look at the attacks, it becomes obvious that their quantity has dramatically increased since the attack in Paris on January the 7th 2015, when two men entered the building of the satirical newspaper “Charlie Hebdo” and killed 12 people (Foster 2017). However, even though a number of terror attacks took place in Turkey, the interviewees reported that they did not notice an implementation new security measures at this certain destination. At the same time, these experienced tourists indicated that they do not feel unsafe because of the absence of these measures. On the other hand, participants who travelled to Paris, Brussels, Great Britain or the United States of America during the last months, have noticed the implementation of new security measures in the corresponding airports.

Taking a historical perspective, it can be said that the 9/11 attacks led to a significant change of security regulations worldwide. According to one interviewee there had been no reason to implement high security standards at the airports before this kind of attack. Even though terrorist attacks occurred before, they had a totally different dimension. The terrorists of former days did not have the intention or will to kill themselves: “It changed to a totally different dimension… because of the suicide attackers; because they are not interested in surviving. This is why they do not care about… In former times in Mogadishu the terrorists even tried to negotiate. Today, this is unthinkable and this is why it all changed so much” (Interview Respondent).

Since the terrorist group: Islamic State was formed in 2006, it requires their supporters to “use violence against people and communities in the name of Jihad and the institution of Islamic rule” (Jabareen 2014, p. 54). As this terrorist group reaches more and more supporters all over the world the danger is not limited to the area of Syria and the Iraq, where this group was formed (Jabareen 2014).

4.2.2 Period and Number of Terrorist Attacks

As already mentioned, the aftermath of terrorist attacks is often just visible for a short time. One example for a short-term affected destination is France. This can be seen in a survey of the magazine FVW, which reported that in November 2015, 16% of the survey’s participants indicated that they are not willing to travel to France. In February 2017 this number decreased by 6%. On the other hand, destinations like Turkey or Egypt seem to suffer from longer-term effects. The willingness to travel to Turkey is still decreasing (Krane 2017). One reason for this seems to be the large number- as well as the periodical nature of attacks. Nevertheless, one participant acknowledged that in Egypt, tourist numbers seem to recover at the moment. She interpreted this phenomenon as the result of no terrorist attacks over several months in Egypt. Moreover, she believed that if there would be no attack in Turkey for a longer period, people might as well start traveling to this destination again.

4.2.3 Area Limitation of Danger

“[…] That was only Istanbul which was a target of many attacks, where a lot of violence took place, but Istanbul is only a very small part of Turkey” (Interview Respondent). During the interviews three participants indicated that the danger of terror attacks or other factors influencing the security of tourists can often be limited to certain areas. According to these interviewees, even if attacks happen or civil unrest takes place at a particular destination, not the whole country is in danger. Nevertheless, people often misinterpret the situation and perceive the whole country as being unsafe. Another opinion is that only big cities like Paris or Brussels seem to be in danger of attacks. Some respondents reported that the presence of military- and security personnel at bigger cities is much higher than elsewhere. This also leads to the impression that these places are at a higher risk.

4.2.4 Politics

“The only reasons for me not to travel to a country are political reasons” (Interview Respondent). This quote illustrates that the political situation often has much more to do with the willingness to travel to destinations than the danger of a terrorist attack. One interviewee who travelled to Moscow described a feeling of being monitored at the destination. Furthermore, some participants indicated that they would not travel to destinations like Turkey, Egypt or the United States of America because they are not willing to support the existing government by traveling there and spending money. However, they underline that their holiday decision does not rely on perceived security risk. Therefore, a change in the political system would often have a higher impact on tourism decision-making than anything else.

On the other hand, the interviewees reported that they believe that an instable political system has also an impact on the probability of a terrorist attack. One respondent reported that many inhabitants are not content with the political system in Turkey and therefore some attacks could be seen as a revolt against the government. One example for this, was the attempt of a coup against the government of Turkey carried out by Turkish military officials on July 16, 2016 (The Washington Post 2016). Additionally, the Turkish government declared to reserve the right to impose a travel ban, which was met by mistrust from the side of potential tourists. Some tourists are scared of travelling to Turkey and then not being able to leave the country again. Furthermore, the Turkish president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan is fighting for the reintroduction of the death penalty, which can be seen as a denial of democracy (Zeit Online 2016). Aside the political instability and institutional lack of reliability, the difference in the political systems plays a role in holiday decision-making as well as in the security- and risk perception of tourists. “[…] in Saudi if you would go there. They have different regulations and some things that are illegal in the rest of the world, there, they are legal. So if those kinds of things could affect you directly, then you wouldn’t go there. So if the politics have designed a system that works against the tourists, then they would not go” (Interview Respondent). This quote illustrates that even though a political situation can be stable, different laws and regulations can lead to a perceived risk of traveling to those places.

4.2.5 Culture and Religion

Culture and religion are important factors for tourists to feel safe at a destination. Due to the fact that destinations like Paris or London seem to have similar cultural values to German cities, tourists from Germany often feel safer at these destinations. Even though, many terrorist attacks took place in Great Britain, most of the interviewees indicated that they would still travel to destinations in Great Britain rather than destinations in Turkey or Egypt. As a reason for this, they mentioned that strict Muslim countries often give the impression of not accepting other religions and that women are regarded as inferior to men. A similar and/or compatible culture and religion at the destination seems to give tourists a feeling of control. It feels like home and they have a familiar daily routine. The study of Jafar Jafari and Noel Scott describes the relationship between religion and the choice of the travel destination. This study points out that there is a significant relationship. Nevertheless, Jafari and Scott also underline that there can be many differences between different Muslim countries, or even in the areas of a certain country and their behaviour towards tourists. This behaviour and the way the community lives their Muslim values and restrictions can be highly influenced by the local government as well as other factors (Jafari and Scott 2014). Moreover, another impression of the interview participants was that countries like France or England give incoming tourists a feeling of being more welcome. Furthermore, a few of the interviewees also explained that destinations like Egypt or Turkey, as they are mainly Muslim countries, could be easily connected to radical terrorist groups like the Islamic State by tourists.

4.2.6 Media and Word of Mouth

People often regard news- and others’ experiences as the only reliable source of information. As the tourist product is intangible and travellers are not able to test the product in advance, many tourists try to seek for information with their peers and in the media. Many interviewees described that even though they believe that the news often exaggerate the current situation at impacted destinations, they are not willing to find out on their own whether this information is correct or not. One participant described the media like this: “[…] So they can always focus on certain events and they tend to focus on things that keep people talking and get people interested and get the noise going about their new story. Nobody talks about the good stuff” (Interview Respondent). This quote suggests that the positive events are often left out by the media because they seem to be not as interesting as the negative events. In contrast to that, most frequent travellers often react differently. Often those frequent travellers reported that they still decided to visit countries like Turkey and were surprised by the misinformation of the press. They described that they never had a feeling of not being safe at the destination. On the other hand, they also indicated that they understand those who are not willing to travel to affected countries, as the media is feeding peoples’ anxiety. The study of Tazayian Sayira and Hazel Andrews focuses on the destination of Chilas in Pakistan. This paper illustrates that the image of this destination is mainly impacted by word-of-mouth communication as well as other communication media. Furthermore, the study describes that mainly during and after crises the media plays a very important role. Nevertheless, Sayira and Andrews indicated that the media reports or the information does not always match the reality (Sayira and Andrews 2016). On the other hand, the interviewees also mentioned the positive effects news reports can have. The media can be used for positive marketing and therefore it can help to repair a destination’s image rather fast.

4.2.7 Feeling of Tourists

People’s feelings such as anxiety, happiness and anticipation, are important factors, which contribute to the degree of holiday enjoyment. Security measures and checks are only some factors that can have both positive and negative impact on these feelings. Many people seem to be rather scared by highly-visible security measures. On the other hand, they strive for a basic safety in the tourism sector. It appears to be very important to implement the right degree of security measure visibility. One participant described that after she went through the normal security checks at the airport, the staff in the plane wanted to check the entire cabin luggage again. “I felt nervous because of that because they wanted to check twice” (Interview Respondent). On the contrary, low degree and visibility of security checks and measures can also generate negative feelings as nothing can be done if a dangerous situation occurs. Terror attacks always generate a feeling of discomfort and the media coverage tends to induce these feelings. But the recovery and the recuperation of feelings of security after such attacks are mediated by totally different factors like the culture and religion of a country. This includes laws and the treatment of women, as well as the overall political situation, as already described in the sections above.

4.2.8 Tourism Decision-Making

“I would not stop traveling to places because there was a terrorist attack. […] This is not really relevant for me […]” (Interview Respondent). There are several factors influencing holiday decision-making (Reisinger and Mavondo 2005). Nevertheless, holiday decision-making is a very subjective process and varies from person to person. Many people are influenced by the media or by word-of-mouth. Some interviewees explained that they already changed their travel behaviour as a result of ongoing reports about terror attacks, wars or because of political reasons. Moreover, one participant described that she is very upset of not being able to travel to places like Syria, especially Aleppo, as this place is the origin of Christianity. She explained that there is no way that there could be any security measure, which would make her feel safe again within this country. Furthermore, one participant explained that in her opinion it is very easy to find a substitute for destinations like Turkey or Egypt. For her, the usual sun and beach holiday she intends to do when she would travel to Turkey or Egypt, she is able to do anywhere else and this is why she would rather travel to safer places. However, she also pointed out, that this would not be the case at destinations like Paris because in her opinion Paris has way more to offer than other destinations. She reported: “Paris holidays would be mainly a sightseeing holiday […] and the Eifel tower you are only able to see in Paris” (Interview Respondent). Furthermore, a very interesting result during the interviews was that almost all of the interviewees indicated that none of the new implemented security measures would have an impact on their own traveling decision or their perception of security.

4.2.9 Security Checks

Security checks are the main tool to ensure the safety of tourists. In former times it was common to have security checks only at the airport. Today, not only the existing checks at the airports have been adapted to novel types of risks, but also several new security checks have been implemented in different places such as: subway stations and shopping malls. As one of the interview participants described: “[…] everywhere I went like big shopping malls, subway stations etc. they checked almost every purse” (Interview Respondent). Most of the interview participants see the security checks and the majority of corresponding rules and regulations as necessary and important to ensure safety. Other studies describe that there seem to be many people who think differently from our interview participants. Even regular, traditional security measures (i.e. not newly implemented) appear to create tensions between the security staff and the passengers at the airport. Sometimes this even leads to aggressive behaviour between those two parties (Skorupski and Uchroῄski 2016). As soon a security check deviates from the expected routine, it can cause discomfort for the tourists. One respondent described a situation where she was tested on traces of explosive substances. She described the situation as awkward and asked herself why they chose her, as this does not belong to the normal routine of security checks. Another factor which can cause discomfort is that some of the rules and regulations seem to be hard to understand for tourists. One described her incomprehension of the liquids regulation. She does not understand why it is allowed to carry a certain amount of liquids instead of a complete banning of all liquids in the cabin luggage. She added that if there could be dangerous liquids inside a carry-on, they could be dangerous in small potions as well. The system is often not transparent enough and the reasons for changes in regulations are often not well communicated.

4.2.10 Security Measures

“I believe that many people demand more safety especially because of the incidents during the last years” (Interview Respondent). Comparable to security checks, security measures appear to be another main part of traveller safety. These security measures can differ a lot from destination to destination. Our interview respondents experienced security measures such as military checkpoints on the streets in Egypt, military staff at the entrance of political buildings as well as security staff at bigger events. Moreover, the German respondents described the German security system as very reliable. Even though, these measures seem to be rather invisible in comparison to other destinations, most of the interview participants reported to feel quite safe in Germany. Nevertheless, security measures do not always contribute to a feeling of security. Many participants expressed the opinion that none of these measures can eliminate the danger of terror attacks. In addition, they pointed out that newly implemented security measures would not be sufficient a reason for tourists to travel to a destination which they currently choose to avoid; even though, many of the affected destinations introduce new security measures partly in the hope of winning back customers (Goodrich 2002). Several participants indicated that a high degree of security measures, for example at festivals or other party locations, will lead to a loss of the party mood. One of them states: “[…] There had been probably undercover security staff but you did not recognise them, which is good. It might sound a bit selfish, but if you want to party then you want to party and not being reminded of the horrible things (meaning the terrorist attacks)” (Interview Respondent).

4.2.11 No Transnational Security Standards

“In Brussels when I arrived they opened all the luggage and one lady was checking everything with her hands. And it was very different for me because Hamburg was easier. They are scanning this and that is all. And here she opened everything and she asked about some cosmetics and yes… It was stronger, yes” (Interview Respondent). Even though, travellers strive for familiarity regarding security measures and checks, there are many differences around the globe. The Interviewees indicated that in Spanish or German destinations security measures are hardly visible at all. There are just the usual security checks one is subjected going through to the departure area (gates). In destinations such as Egypt a completely different picture can be observed. There are many soldiers on the street equipped with machine guns, as already described in the section above. Another destination with high security standards appears to be Moscow in Russia. One interviewee described that she was forced to hand in her passport at the hotel reception and had to leave it there until she checked out. For her it was a strange situation to walk through an unknown country without having a passport.

Additionally, there was a high presence of security staff at the hotel, who controlled whether they were really guests of the hotel every time they entered. The overall impression formed during our research was that most of the respondents felt rather insecure in the presence of too many visible security measures. High-visibility of security measures can frighten travellers, who may, as a result, interpret the situation to be highly dangerous. This is often the case when travellers are not familiar with it, when comparing them with security measures at their country of origin.

On the other hand, if security checks are not visibly thorough enough at certain airports, this can also contribute to a feeling of discomfort. Participants reported that at some airports in Turkey, for example, they were able to experience inconsequent security checks. Interview participants who already experienced a flight to the USA, mentioned a lengthy procedure consisting of numerous security checks. This procedure already starts with the application for a visa, as tourists have to provide a lot of personal information in order to apply (US Customs and Border Protection n.d.). Moreover, the luggage checks are more thorough than anywhere else. Security staff is checking every single piece of luggage before loading it on the plane. The need to have an equal system for every destination is highly recommendable.

5 Modelling and Analysis

The model shows the relationships between the different axial codes resulting from our research and represent the tentative hypotheses for further research (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2

Model of relationship between categories

5.1 Tentative Hypotheses

• Tentative Hypothesis 1: Politics have a major impact on terrorism

There are several interviewees who gave feedback during the interviews underlining this finding. One of these quotes is the following: “[…] Before the change in the political system in Turkey, there had been no risks of terrorist attacks. That means that as long as Erdogan got along with the Kurds and this was the case for a long time and as long as Erdogan wanted to bring the country forward everything was okay and there had been no terrorist attacks” (Interview Respondent).

• Tentative Hypothesis 2: The political situation described by the media has a greater impact on tourists’ security perceptions and their holiday selection/decision than terrorism.

Many of the respondents stated that they would still travel to destinations which had suffered from terrorist attacks. They suggested that other factors, such as the political situation at a destination, play a more important role regarding their security perception and their holiday selection. This can be underlined with the following quote of one participant: “[…] The main point is how the political situation is in the country. This is the sticking point at both destinations (meaning Egypt and Turkey) that there had been a lot of political incorrectness. This is sticking in most of the peoples’ heads as well as the current situation regarding Erdogan who is talking about a travel entry ban” (Interview Respondent).

• Tentative Hypothesis 3: Media and word-of-mouth seem to be the main determinants of security perceptions and holiday selection/decision.

This indicates that tourists are often influenced by the experience reports of other people or by the media coverage. As these two sources are the main sources of information it appears to have a high impact on security perception as well as other feelings of travellers. Many participants claimed that the media is feeding people’s anxiety. The following quote reveals the experience of one interview participants with media coverage:

“[…] In my opinion the media is highly involved in people’s decision to travel. They prevent people from travelling, because often at the destination the situation is not as bad as described by the media” (Interview Respondent).

• Tentative Hypothesis 4: Culture and religion at the travel destination has a high impact on tourists’ security perception.

This tentative hypothesis refers to a number of our interview participants, who described that the culture at a destination can cause a feeling of discomfort and a reduced feeling of security if it is distant to the culture and religion of one’s own home country. Alternatively, cultural distance can also have a positive impact on peoples’ feelings. The following quote is underlying that a welcoming and open culture like the culture of France or UK can lead to a positive feeling of travellers, but it also underlines that the absence of it can lead to the contrary. “[…] Great Britain and France are a lot more welcoming to US citizens especially… or citizens of a lot of other places. You don’t see the same tensions between their countries or their citizens to other countries the same way you see from Turkey or Egypt” (Interview Respondent).

• Tentative Hypothesis 5: Tourists’ security perceptions are key determinants of holiday selection/decision.

The holiday-travel-decision is mainly based on emotions and feelings. One of the interview participants, who works as a travel agent described the booking situation with her clients: “[…] But I can totally understand every client who does not have a good feeling (meaning traveling to destinations like Egypt or Turkey). Going on holidays with an unpleasant feeling is never a good idea because if you are not a 100% sure while booking then you should probably think about traveling to a different destination where you might feel more comfortable” (Interview Respondent).

• Tentative Hypothesis 6: The perceived degree of security-measure standardisation has a significant impact on tourists’ security perception.

The lack standardisation with regard to security checks and measures around the globe, seems to be a source of insecurity for tourists, especially when confronted with unfamiliar situations. Many of our interviewees describe the checks as very scary, because they are not able to see the logic behind it. One respondent said that she was really surprised about the different security checks at numerous airports: “I am consistently astonished by the difference in security checks at the different destinations” (Interview Respondent).

• Tentative Hypothesis 7: Tourists’ security perceptions are significantly influenced by others’ reported experiences and media reports.

The media and others’ experience reports are the main source of information prior traveling. Especially when tourists have not been to a certain destination before, they are highly influenced by the information they receive. “Do you think the media is influencing a lot the feeling of security of people?” “Yeah.” “And why?” “Because media can manipulate other people. When they are saying that there is a lot of security people and that they are saying it is a good place because you can feel comfortable with this and they want to prevent from another situation and people believe that, so they can make you feel sure that it is really safe” (Interview Respondent).

• Tentative Hypothesis 8: The impact of terrorism reports on tourists’ security perceptions depend on the frequency and number of attacks, as well as the size of the corresponding geographical impact.

Our research suggests that tourists seem to have a heightened risk perception only if the impacted destination had suffered from more than one terrorist attack. Moreover, the geographical scope reported in the media appears to also have an impact on security perceptions. One interview participant mentioned that even though terrorist attacks were limited to Istanbul, the media reported that the entire country (i.e. Turkey) is not safe anymore and people are scared to travel to Turkey in general because of this: “[…] and so many people are worried because of all the attacks. But these attacks only affect a small part of Turkey, Istanbul. And the rest of Turkey is actually not affected. Turkey does not only consist of Istanbul” (Interview Respondent).

6 Limitations

During the initial stages of research, there was the dilemma of whether to limit the respondent sample to frequent travellers, who are presumably more likely to have experiences with security measures and checks. Yet, during the data analysis it became clear that this option might have actually been a research limitation. Inexperienced travellers may have different views on security measures and checks, adding to the diversity of the sample; and hence to the richness of our findings. Another limitation that emerged during the interviews none of the respondents had ever experienced a terror attack themselves or through their friends or family. Nonetheless, the respondents all made clear that a single terror attack at a destination would not have had an impact on their holiday selection/decision. Yet one could be critical of this contention as it rather hypothetical. Another limitation could be the particular time-frame of this piece of research, as in coincided with a number of terrorist attacks, whilst many destinations had to suffer from political conflicts and/or -instability. The corresponding media coverage may have had been very intensive and sensitised the respondents’ views and focus on the matter.

7 Conclusion

Understanding security perceptions is a highly relevant topic; especially during critical times. There are many factors that contribute to an unsafe or safe feeling that are not readily obvious. The political aspect seems to particularly relevant in the formation of security-related perceptions. It was surprising to discover that a single terror attack does not appear to have a decisive impact on holiday selection or destination decision; as long as the corresponding country itself is perceived as politically-stable. Moreover, experiencing cultural differences seemed very important for the majority of tourists, but can be also associated with safety-related discomfort. Often it might be challenging for destinations to adapt their own laws and regulations to their tourism target markets, but a compromise is worth considering for the sake of tourism prosperity and development. Finally, striving for a standardisation of security systems, especially at airports, is recommendable.