Keywords

Introduction

Entrepreneurship is considered as a solution to the economic and social problems in parts of Africa (Tvedten et al. 2014). There is a growing recognition that entrepreneurship in Africa provides a way to enable financial independence and control over one’s destiny. This is important to community development and increasing the quality of life for people in Africa. Reid et al. (2015: 264) states, “while Africans display among the highest entrepreneurial intent globally, African countries are less well prepared than many other regions to capitalize on these motivations”. The reason for this might be that there are more people being pushed into entrepreneurship due to their lack of education and job opportunities (Ferreira et al. 2017). The poor economic conditions in parts of Africa have influenced more people to see self-employment as a good career choice.

Entrepreneurship has been lower in Africa compared to other parts of the world due to the abundance of state-owned enterprises (Edoho 2016). This has discouraged small business activity and the incentive for individuals to engage in entrepreneurship. In addition, there was an emphasis on government-controlled businesses that discourage private investment in new start-ups. More recently there has been a shift towards entrepreneurship as a way to increase employment and economic growth (Garba 2010). Adenle (2017: 94) states that in Africa “entrepreneurship will play a critical role in tackling the youth unemployment that is growing at exponential rate in the continent”. In order to help encourage more entrepreneurship in Africa, education plays an important role. This is due to the business skills that entrepreneurship education teaches that can help empower people to start businesses (Ratten 2011). In addition, entrepreneurship education that incorporates knowledge and information about business can transform the African economy (Adenle 2017).

There is a difference in entrepreneurship in Africa and other parts of the world due to the cultural and historical factors. However, this disparity is changing as more entrepreneurs in Africa become successful and globalize their business ventures. Only recently has there been an increased interest in African entrepreneurship due to the economic growth in the region. George et al. (2016: 377) states, “Africa is beginning to capture the imagination of entrepreneurs, corporate executives, and scholars as an emerging market of new growth opportunities”. Despite the popularity of African entrepreneurship in the media , there is still a lack of understanding in the academic literature about how it is different compared to other geographical locations. For this reason, it is important to provide an overview of current research about African entrepreneurship as a way to project future research intentions. This is due to the historical and institutional factors that have affected the performance of African businesses (Tvedten et al. 2014). In addition, within Africa there are a number of diverse countries with different business systems that make it necessary to examine individual countries rather than categorize all countries as the same. The competitiveness of business in Africa has been limited by the cultural barriers and perceived ability to be entrepreneurial.

This chapter will facilitate the development of research on African entrepreneurship by providing a discussion of the literature in order to understand current gaps. Hence, the chapter will discuss the role of entrepreneurship in Africa through a review of the key findings and policy implications. This will provide a way of understanding the current state of the research about African entrepreneurship and how to move the field forward. This chapter is structured as follows. The importance of entrepreneurship in Africa is outlined including the historical development of research. The main issues connecting African business to entrepreneurship are then stated. The discussion section states the reasons for the increased global interest in Africa and the rapid emergence of distinct entrepreneurial types of business. The chapter concludes by suggesting future research directions and implications for theory.

Literature Review

Rise of Entrepreneurship

Entrepreneurship plays an important role in the economic growth of most countries. Despite the significance given to entrepreneurship in Asia as part of the change for many countries from developing to developed, there has been less emphasis on it in Africa. This is despite there being more acknowledgement of entrepreneurship in Africa in the past decade as a way to stimulate investment and business activity. Much of the literature about emerging economies has tended to focus on Asia and Europe with minimal acknowledgement of the role Africa plays in the global economy. There has been a long tradition of entrepreneurship in Africa but it has been different to that in other geographic areas due to the cultural context. Nafukho and Muyia (2010: 99) state, “in Africa, entrepreneurship has existed since time immemorial”. Therefore, it is important to understand why there has been a lack of research about entrepreneurship in Africa as a way to move the field forward.

Edoho (2016: 280) states that entrepreneurship can be differentiated in terms of social outcomes by “productive (social gains), unproductive (zero social gains) or destructive (social losses)”. Productive entrepreneurship in Africa provides a way to help disadvantaged people gain access to needed services. Unproductive entrepreneurship means no changes occur in the business environment to impact society. Destructive entrepreneurship involves negative effects from business activity that harm individuals. All these types of entrepreneurship offer a way to progress economically and socially by focusing on business ventures. Rodrik (2016) suggests that to ensure continued economic growth in the future for Africa, there needs to be more emphasis on entrepreneurial opportunities. This is due to entrepreneurship involving identifying opportunities in a marketplace so that there can be practical outcomes.

Often there is a need for flexibility in the way opportunities are evaluated so resources can be assembled. This involves making decisions as to the risks and rewards associated with developing the idea. Opportunities are discovered in different ways depending on the environmental context. There are three main types of entrepreneurial opportunities : recognition, discovery and creation (Sarasvathy et al. 2003). Opportunity recognition involves being aware of business ideas that can lead to financial gain. Discovery refers to finding new ways to conduct business. Creation refers to starting new businesses that are innovative or new to previously existing ones.

Africa is seen as an area of emerging business interest due to its potential for growth and entrepreneurial opportunities. There has been a change in the perception of business in Africa to a more positive outlook than the past. Tvetven et al. (2014) suggest there are three main reasons for the increased interest in African entrepreneurship. First, more businesses are changing to a formal status that makes them easier to regulate. This is important in encouraging businesses to move from informal to formal status in order to increase internationalization rates. In addition, the structure of African economies has developed to have a more transparent business environment. Second, there is a middle class emerging in Africa who want to be entrepreneurs and involved in business. This means that more people in Africa are starting new businesses, and this is impacting the entrepreneurial ecosystem. Third, there are some very successful African companies that are paving the way for other businesses to follow.

Entrepreneurship is a buzzword that is used globally to indicate some kind of innovative business activity . There will be a growing recognition of the role entrepreneurship plays due to its business policy and societal implications for Africa. Devine and Kiggundu (2016: 350) state that “in Africa, entrepreneurship is examined amidst the individual entrepreneur, small and medium enterprises (SMEs) and family businesses ”. Thus, Africa is considered a region that has a large number of developing countries which means there is potential for business growth as the lower-income classes move to become middle-class citizens with more disposable income. Due to the economic potential of developing countries in Africa, there has been a recognition in the global community that there needs to be interaction between business, government and society. The private and public sectors have obligations towards the socio-economic development of Africa (Amaeshi and Idemudia 2015). It is important that entrepreneurship research acknowledges the unique African culture and diversity of people within the African continent.

Economic Performance of Africa

The economic performance of many African countries has transformed in the past decade from negative to positive growth rates. Africa is one of the most resource-rich areas in the world due to its abundance of natural resources . However, there are many different types of countries in Africa with different views about entrepreneurship. The mining industry in Africa is amongst the world’s largest and contributes substantially to economic growth. There is also the agricultural industry that exports products including coffee and cotton. Such industries provide the foundation for the many African countries, but there has been a shift in economic policy towards more knowledge and service type of industries due to the potential for more long-term value. This change in economic policy has influenced orientation towards entrepreneurship and the flow of financial capital into new industries.

Khavul et al. (2009: 1219) states that “management and entrepreneurship scholars in general have ignored emerging economies in Africa”. The lack of attention from entrepreneurship scholars in Africa is interesting given the novel start-ups and ideas that come from this region. Since the independence of some African countries, there have been dictatorships that have negatively affected economic growth. Moreover, there has been a high proportion of low-income people in Africa with one half of the world’s poorest people living in the continent (Khavul et al. 2009). The large land mass and political differences between countries in Africa have meant difficulties for business in internationalizing. This has led to a lack of economic integration and unity in terms of business practices. Edoho (2016: 282) states, “African economies generally comprise formal sector dominated by opportunity-driven entrepreneurs and informal sector inhabited by necessity-driven entrepreneurs ”. Thus, there is a large proportion of informal businesses in Africa due to their unregistered status and small number of employees. Some of these informal businesses have behaved in an entrepreneurial manner in terms of the products and services sold but often do not attract media attention.

Entrepreneurship in Africa has been used as a way to reduce conflict after wars due to its ability to generate financial gains and employment. This is evident in the Rwandan coffee industry that utilized entrepreneurship post-genocide to rebuild the economy. Africa has the highest participation of women in early-stage entrepreneurial activity in the world (Global Entrepreneurship Monitor 2015). This has meant that there is increased interest in African entrepreneurship due to its potential of fostering business development. More academics are becoming interested in Africa due to its cultural heritage and innovative business practices (Devine and Kiggundu 2016). This is the result of different cultural conditions and treatment of entrepreneurship in Africa.

Amongst the largest economies in Africa is Nigeria, but it has a high unemployment rate (Edoho 2016). Adenle (2017) proposes that a triple helix approach be used in Africa for entrepreneurship development particularly amongst countries with high unemployment . This is due to the triple helix referring to the interaction that takes place between business, governments and universities. Often additional helixes are included in this network system including cultural and social elements as a way of understanding entrepreneurship ecosystems. The political instability and deregulation of industries have a positive effect on entrepreneurship in Africa (Munemo 2012). Entrepreneurship is generally viewed as the rate of new business activity in the marketplace but the context affects its interpretation particularly in Africa. This general definition focuses on the formal nature of entrepreneurship that is based on registered businesses, thus it may exclude informal businesses. Political stability is important to fostering entrepreneurship as it measures how likely there will be changes in laws and regulations in a society. In parts of Africa, there has been political instability due to changing governments, which has affected the entrepreneurial intention and ability of people.

Demographics of Africa

Africa has a different demographic to many other regions as over half the population are under the age of 25 (George et al. 2016). Some of the major problems in Africa include “unemployment, insecurity, food shortages, and environmental degradation” (Karanda and Toledano 2012: 204). Unemployment in parts of Africa is high with the government viewing entrepreneurship as a way to create jobs. Moreover, graduate unemployment is noted as high in several European countries (Adawo and Atan 2013). However, the cultural and social notion of entrepreneurship may differ in some African countries, thereby discouraging people from starting their own businesses. Political instability in parts of Africa has also influenced business activity with international investors focusing on countries they feel are less risky. Food shortages in Africa have meant international aid has focused on nutrition and health rather than the creation of new jobs. Moreover, environmental degradation in parts of Africa has meant less farming land is available.

There is linguistic diversity in Africa that influences cultural events and business opportunities. George et al. (2016: 381) states that “25% of all languages are spoken in Africa, with over 2000 recognised languages spoken on the continent”. Whilst English is considered the international business language, the diversity of languages in Africa can make it difficult for business. To help encourage more people to become entrepreneurs in Africa, there needs to be more research about the topic of diversity. In addition, there is an immense range of entrepreneurs in Africa ranging from micro informal businesses to large multinationals. Entrepreneurship scholars have the opportunity to conduct studies about African entrepreneurship that help to build a body of knowledge about this geographical area.

This entrepreneurship is evident in the use of information communication technology in Africa to transcend communication barriers and establish new markets (Meso et al. 2005). Nafukho and Muyia (2010) give the example of Mohammed Ibrahim as a successful entrepreneur in Africa due to pioneering the first mobile company. Entrepreneurship has also been evident in the mining and resource sector. Countries such as Malawi and Zambia offer rich copper reserves that have influenced the growth of the mining sector. However, most of the economies in Africa are based on agriculture and the resource industry. The droughts in some African countries notably Ethiopia have affected the agricultural industry and ability of the country to feed its citizens. In addition, there is a lack of clean drinking water, which has affected nutrition rates. The commercial history of countries in Africa such as Kenya have had a barter and trading existence in terms of exchanging basketry, beads and pottery. These craft and farm goods were used in the African economy for centuries before the advent of the knowledge economy that values more information communications technology types of services. Entrepreneurs need to be innovative in enabling tasks that lead to the development of businesses (Ratten 2016). Nafukho and Muyia (2010: 99) define entrepreneur’s new tasks as involving “creating a new business venture or managing an ongoing operation but the tasks must be creative or must respond to change and add value”.

The lack of entrepreneurship research in Africa is partly explained by the large amount of scholars residing in other geographic locations. Most research on Africa focuses on countries with a high gross domestic product (George et al. 2016). In African society, there has been a tendency to focus on the extended family for employment opportunities, which can act as a deterrent to entrepreneurship. Luke and Munshi (2006) in a study of Kenya found that kinship networks influence the labour market in a number of ways.

Entrepreneurship in Africa

Entrepreneurship in Africa is a fluid area that is constantly changing to suit social and political circumstances. Amaeshi and Idemudia (2015: 210) define Africapitalism as “an economic philosophy that embodies the private sectors commitment to the economic transformation of Africa through investments that generate both economic prosperity and social wealth”. There are a number of reasons for the lower rates of entrepreneurship in Africa compared to other regions. This includes limited infrastructure particularly in landlocked countries that make it challenging for exporters. Poor infrastructure (e.g. ineffective or unreliable electricity, water supply and inadequate road, rail and air services networks) is endemic in African countries particularly in more rural regions. African Rural regions also suffer from a talent drain whereby people migrate to the capital city seeking employment. The consequence of this is limited economic activity in rural areas and infrastructural overload (e.g. road gridlock) in the major cities. In addition, there have been government policies not conducive to entrepreneurship and instead favouring state-run organizations. Many African countries suffer from excessive administration processes and excessive tax systems that impact negatively upon the small business community and entrepreneurial spirit.

Robson et al. (2009) highlight how institutional support tends to be low for new ventures. This means there has tended to be a lack of financial and educational resources available to entrepreneurs. In Africa, there is a tendency to rely on family members for employment and financial needs that impact on the independence of the business venture. Takyi-Asiedu (1993) points out how there are different sociocultural factors that impact entrepreneurial activity in Africa. In Africa like other continents, there can be enterprise without entrepreneurship, which means there is a lack of innovation or creativity. However, what is considered entrepreneurship is contextual and differs based on cultural and social beliefs. Thus, there needs to be a broader perspective about how to understand entrepreneurship in order to bring in new understandings from different cultures.

There is a dualism in the African economy with large state-owned enterprises co-existing with micro businesses. This has been the result of a lack of social assistance to many people in Africa meaning that to survive they have to become entrepreneurs. Not all entrepreneurship is positive, and this is reflected in the types of businesses created. Although entrepreneurship in Africa has the potential to change economic conditions by creating more self-sufficient job opportunities.

Social capital is a way African entrepreneurs can overcome barriers to target growth opportunities. This is due to institutional ties that link entrepreneurs to government bodies that can provide a way to deal with bureaucracy in a positive manner. The level of entrepreneurship differs amongst countries in Africa due to educational and cultural reasons. For example, Gamba (2017) found that there was a lower level of trust and information sharing in Tanzania compared to Rwanda.

Entrepreneurship research is still largely understood from a European and North American perspective (Bruton et al. 2008). This has led to most of the entrepreneurship theories coming from a developed country background, which has inbuilt biases. To examine African entrepreneurship, the economic and social relationships that influence entrepreneurship need to be understood. This recognizes that culture impacts business and emphasizes the importance of social relationships. Takyi-Asiedu (1993) discussed how entrepreneurship was present in the ancient empires of Ghana and Songhai, which means that often entrepreneurship is limited by cultural constraints and social conditions.

Dana (1995: 67) states that “entrepreneurial dimensions are circumscribed by family, government or other environmental factors”. Therefore, entrepreneurship provides a way of nourishing people by increasing their self-sufficiency and confidence. Anderson and Obeng (2017: 25) state, “the lack of entrepreneurship in Africa is broadly attributed to both structured and personal characteristics”. The structural includes the lack of financial institutions being willing to lend money to entrepreneurs. This lack of finance problem exists in other countries but is more pronounced in Africa due to the role governments have in the financial sector. The personal characteristics might include the lack of education in how to register a business. In addition, there is a gender component to entrepreneurship that is more evident in some African countries. For example, in Ghana males are likely to be the fishermen, whilst females trade the fish.

Due to the existence of other geographic trading blocs such as the European Union , there has been a tendency to promote more economic integration amongst countries in Africa. In emerging economies, there is a tendency to view all the same without considering their size and history (Bruton et al. 2008). There is a need to use more multi-country samples of Africa to compare and contrast entrepreneurship rates. There are many countries in Africa that each require more research in terms of business development. In parts of Africa particularly rural-based economies , there is more emphasis on maintaining networks and relationships rather than having independent action. This has encouraged extended family networks to continue by encouraging social welfare but may be detrimental to entrepreneurship.

Encouraging Entrepreneurship Through Education

To encourage economic growth, many governments in Africa have started entrepreneurship education programmes to teach skills about business management (Co and Mitchell 2006). In Africa there tends to be a social structure that is authoritarian and hierarchical (Takyi-Asiedu 1993). This is reflected in the political situation existing in some African countries with presidents having long time periods in power. There have been several bribery and corruption scandals involving some African presidents that have resulted in less economic growth than could have been achieved through a democracy (Asongu 2013). Often these political leaders in Africa who have been in power for a long time are replaced by revolutionary leaders. This political instability has affected entrepreneurs as they need to have the perseverance and drive to see an idea from inception to commercialization.

Takyi-Asiedu (1993: 94) states, “the traditional social structure in Africa makes women submissive to men”. This has resulted in gender imbalances amongst business leaders particularly in large state-controlled companies. However, this gender inequity is changing as more females enter the workforce. There are many successful female entrepreneurs in Africa with the craft industries providing a good way for females to balance work and family life. The gender issues regarding entrepreneurship in Africa are similar to many other geographical locations but may differ based on cultural stereotypes.

The political and economic systems in parts of Africa have been incompatible with entrepreneurship due to the focus on government rather than private enterprise. Therefore, there has been a focus on social entrepreneurship in Africa as a way to redistribute wealth and help disadvantaged parts of society. In Africa there has been the tribal system with people born into different levels within their tribe. This has influenced economic life and created difficulties in business. There is also rivalry between tribes in Africa that effects business life. Takyi-Asiedu (1993: 95) states, “the ethnic rivalry between the Kalenjin (one of the smaller tribes in Kenya) and the Kikuyu (the dominant tribe in Kenya) is one of the political maneuvers aimed at ending Kikuyu dominance in all spheres of economic life in Kenya”.

In Africa there have been market failures that have resulted in a large informal economy that can make it hard to assess the entrepreneurship existing in a country. There is also a strong ethnic group identity in Africa with tribal systems impacting business practices. This has resulted in Africa being considered as an area with untapped entrepreneurial and growth potential. Thus, there needs to be institutional change in Africa to encourage more entrepreneurship as there is currently a poor governance system in some countries (Dibie et al. 2015). This lack of stability hampers business confidence and makes it challenging for entrepreneurs.

Africa has a history of colonialism , distressed civil societies and bad governance (Amaeshi and Idemucha 2015). There has been tremendous international aid given to Africa, but instead of helping it has in some cases created a sense of dependency. This has meant that there has been a lack of business market development that has impeded progress. Sriram and Mersha (2006: 137) state, “the average per capita income in sub-Saharan Africa today is lower than it was at the end of the 1960s”. Whilst many developing countries in Asia have grown significantly, some in Africa have declined. There is an awareness that there needs to be education rather than just aid to help Africa increase economic growth rates.

Entrepreneurship has tended to be more valued in countries in Asia and the United States but less in Africa (Bruton et al. 2015) Governments in Africa are creating entrepreneurship funds to help support new businesses (Nafukho and Muyia 2010). There are individual and societal benefits to entrepreneurship in Africa. Disadvantaged members of society can gain confidence from entrepreneurship education and training. This is occurring in Africa at different stages of education including primary school to higher education institutions. Thus, it is important to have effective entrepreneurship education in order to shift unproductive activities into more productive economies.

In the global market , there is increased recognition of the improved business conditions in Africa. However, Africa contains several diverse countries with different entrepreneurial orientations. Some African countries have a more dynamic business environment and are internationally competitive. Other countries are more bureaucratic and less entrepreneurial as a result of state-subsidized businesses. Tvedten et al. (2014: 252) state, “the literature on rising African enterprises tends to focus on a few countries (typically Nigeria, Kenya, Ghana or Botswana)”. These countries are not representative of the entrepreneurship occurring in other African countries, which means there are biased reports. Entrepreneurship in Africa needs to be understood from the experience of its people in order to obtain a personal reflection of how it is changing. Research about Africa often comes from an outsider’s perspective without realizing the distinct personal experiences of its citizens.

There is limited comparable data about entrepreneurship in Africa that makes it problematic to analyse. In addition, entrepreneurship can be a subjective topic and its meaning is often culturally biased. In a study about African enterprises, McCormick (1999) suggested there are a number of limiting factors affecting business development. This includes the lack of accountability and trust in the government, which is partly the result of historical events. Thus, the labour and financial markets need to be more stable before efficient business practices can emerge. There are increased urbanization rates in Africa, which are impacting the labour force and need for employment and self-employment.

Institutional Structures in Africa

Institutions are important in Africa for giving stability to entrepreneurs and as a foundation for business development. Formal institutions such as banks are required for entrepreneurs in order to gain access to funding for business activities. Economic growth in the form of job opportunities is helpful in reducing social tensions in Africa. It is worth promoting entrepreneurship as a way of decreasing social inequality. The business climate in Africa needs to change by embracing creativity and innovation, which are required in entrepreneurship. To build the appropriate environment for entrepreneurship, there needs to be suitable infrastructure and education. In the formal sector, entrepreneurs are seen as more opportunity driven and focus on high risk but innovative products (Kuada 2015). In Africa, there is greater emphasis on the informal sector in business as it is typically larger than the formal sector. The informal sector in the African economy normally has minimal capital required to start businesses and offers low value added competitiveness (Edoho 2016). This results in many African entrepreneurs being in the informal sector due to necessity and having smaller-sized business. In many African countries, this gives rise to a significant black economy including illegal activities such as street sellers. Whilst providing a means of income generation, this behaviour is hardly entrepreneurial and is difficult to escape from. Thus, informal entrepreneurs are often operating businesses for their survival rather than trying to devise new opportunities. In the informal sector , self-employment enables participants to set their own work hours and geographical place of work. These informal sector entrepreneurs have been referred to as working in the bazaar economy due to the abundance of microenterprises (Edoho 2016).

Frese et al. (2002) in a study of Namibia businesses found that strategic planning can help drive entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship is underdeveloped in Africa due to the past reliance on the government instead of private business for employment . Each entrepreneur in Africa is unique with their own capabilities, so it is not correct to stereotype all business in Africa as the same. Therefore, understanding entrepreneurship in Africa is a complex process due to the diversity of cultures and business practices.

International trade is increasing in Africa due to the existence of improved economic and social conditions (Dzvimbo and Moloi 2013). It is important to respect the lived experiences of African people that affect their entrepreneurship (Reid et al. 2015). Most countries in Africa are considered factor driven as they rely on macroeconomic stability to survive (Reid et al. 2015). The creation of infrastructure is also a feature of factor-driven economies that enables financial and social stability. There is a dearth of research about comparing different entrepreneurship styles in Africa. This has created a perception of all African entrepreneurship being the same when each country needs to be studied individually, which necessitates a number of future research avenues.

Questions for Future Research

There are several interesting questions for future research regarding African entrepreneurship. Africa offers inspiration and interesting insights regarding entrepreneurship that differs to the extant literature. The emergent literature about African entrepreneurship provides novel ideas about the diversity of business practices but needs to question how the cultural diversity and historical context of Africa differ from other geographical locations. New theoretical insights regarding entrepreneurship will develop from Africa due to the economic and social transformations. Thus, there needs to be careful and considerate examination of entrepreneurship in Africa in order to gain an improved understanding regarding its people. Africa has been seen as being one geographic region with the same business practices, but in reality there are different cultural values that influence entrepreneurship. This raises an interesting question regarding how is Africa becoming increasingly globalized due to the decreased costs of using information technology communications ? There is a need for more research that understands the diversity of Africa and its distinct entrepreneurial practices.

In Africa there is lost outcomes from the untapped entrepreneurial capabilities of people. A strategic approach to increasing entrepreneurship rates in Africa is required at a national level to positively impact economic growth rates. Individual countries in Africa need to create effective ecosystems to support business start-up and growth. This includes the educational sector offering effective experiential curriculum that supports innovation and creativity-focused graduate start-ups, seed corn funding and business incubation facilities. Best practice from innovation-driven economies must be identified and customized for an African context. Much research needs to be done to disseminate and evaluate this practice. African economies blighted by high graduate unemployment such as Nigeria need to reconsider how they can encourage self-employability opportunities. This chapter suggests that lessons can be learnt from other countries about how to harness the economic and social potential of entrepreneurship. There needs to be a more accepting environment for the experimenting of ideas that have business potential. This can be difficult in some African countries that have a fragile and unstable political system.

Conclusion

This chapter has shared information regarding how entrepreneurship in Africa is evolving. The existing literature regarding entrepreneurship in Africa was reviewed. This then linked into the section that describes the future for entrepreneurship in Africa. However, more information is required to discuss the nuances of African society given its diversity and its impact on entrepreneurship. There needs to be some trepidation about proclaiming entrepreneurship in Africa as growing as there still is a long way to go before it is fully integrated into society. Whilst Africa contains great entrepreneurial spirit, there is a significant amount of necessity-driven, informal entrepreneurship which lacks the capacity to transform and impact significantly upon respective economies. Thus, there needs to be more effort by researchers to focus on African entrepreneurship that endorses the increased global attention on the continent. Moreover, policymakers need to promote the positive aspects of entrepreneurship in Africa and effectively support its development through funding and infrastructure. This means focusing on how to encourage more effective entrepreneurial behaviour particularly for individuals, entrepreneurs, investors and policymakers in Africa.