Abstract
The aim of this chapter is to explore some of the dominant metaphors within the context of the third-party reproduction practice commonly referred to as ‘commercial surrogacy.’ In particular, the metaphor of hospitality will be examined to explore the manner through which this metaphor shapes how we conceive of women, maternity, kin relationships and the pregnant body. Considering the recent work of the feminist scholar Irina Aristarkhova, new feminist conceptions of embodied hospitality will be brought into dialogue with theories of hospitality in the work of Emmanuel Levinas, along with the various discourses of commercial surrogacy which deploy the metaphor. It will ultimately be argued that pregnancy is a human and maternal process that has constitutional status, involving complex subjective affects and roles through relations of care and nurturing. As a result, the gestating mother, who creates space for and welcomes the ‘other,’ should not be effaced or forgotten.
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Notes
- 1.
John D. Loike, “Loaded Words,” The Scientist, 1 December 2014.
- 2.
Emily Martin , The Woman in the Body: A Cultural Analysis of Reproduction (Boston: Beacon Books, 2001).
- 3.
As Beeson et al. point out, there are terminological issues even in the use of the term ‘surrogate’ in describing third-party reproductive practices where a woman gestates a foetus on behalf of another. See Diane Beeson, Marcy Darnovsky, and Abby Lipman, “What’s in a Name?: Variations in Terminology of Third-Party Reproduction,” Reproductive BioMedicine Online 31 (2015).
- 4.
I have written about commercial surrogacy elsewhere in order to demonstrate how pregnancy, as an embodied and existential experience, is often effaced in dominant discourses. This chapter is a further development of these themes. See Luna Dolezal, “Phenomenology and Intercorporeality in the Case of Commercial Surrogacy,” in Body/Self/Other: The Phenomenology of Social Encounters, ed. Luna Dolezal and Danielle Petherbridge (Albany: SUNY Press, 2017). Also see “Considering Pregnancy in Commercial Surrogacy: A Response to Bronwyn Parry,” Medical Humanities 41, no. 1 (2015).
- 5.
Traditionally, in commercial surrogacy, the surrogate mother is the genetic parent and the sperm comes from a donor or the intended father. However, with the advent of in vitro fertilization (IVF), genetic ties to the gestating surrogate are now completely elective, as embryos are created and implanted into the womb of the surrogate, without her needing to have any genetic ties to the foetus she will gestate. While gametes may often come from what are referred to as the ‘commissioning parents,’ creating a genetic link between the child and its intended parents, they may also simply be purchased by the commissioning parents, meaning that it is possible for there to be no genetic link between the child and its intended parents.
- 6.
See France Winddance Twine, Outsourcing the Womb: Race, Class and Gestational Surrogacy in a Global Market (London: Routledge, 2011).
- 7.
Ibid., 17.
- 8.
See Luna Dolezal, “Review of Hospitality of the Matrix: Philosophy, Biomedicine and Culture, Irina Aristarkhova (2012),” Hospitality & Society 2, no. 3 (2012).
- 9.
Vivian Sobchack, “A Leg to Stand On: Prosthetics, Metaphor, and Materiality,” in The Prosthetic Impulse: From a Posthuman Present to a Biocultural Future, ed. Marquard Smith and Joanne Morra (London: MIT Press, 2006), 21.
- 10.
Ibid.
- 11.
Martin, 66.
- 12.
Ibid., 57.
- 13.
Mary Midgley , The Myths We Live By (London: Routledge, 2011), 1.
- 14.
Ibid.
- 15.
George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Metaphors We Live By (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1980), 66.
- 16.
For a discussion of the philosophical underpinnings of the contract model in surrogacy, see Rosalyn Diprose , The Bodies of Women: Ethics, Embodiment and Sexual Difference (London: Routledge, 1994), 2–17.
- 17.
Jeffrey Kirby, “Transnational Gestational Surrogacy: Does It Have to Be Exploitative,” The American Journal of Bioethics 14, no. 5 (2014): 28.
- 18.
Twine, 15.
- 19.
See Wendy Brown, Undoing the Demos: Neoliberalism’s Stealth Revolution (New York: Zone Books, 2015), 10.
- 20.
For example, see Bronwyn Parry, “Narratives of Neoliberalism: ‘Clinical Labour’ in Context,” Medical Humanities 41, no. 1 (2015).
- 21.
Barbara Katz Rothman , “Laboring Now: Current Cultural Constructions of Pregnancy, Birth and Mothering,” in The Body Reader: Essential Social and Cultural Readings, ed. Lisa Jean Moore and Mary Kosut (New York: New York University Press, 2010), 50.
- 22.
See Lennart Nilsson and Lars Hamberger, A Child Is Born (Delacorte Press, 2003). See also Jane Lymer and Fiona Utley, “Hospitality and Maternal Consent,” Law Text Culture 17 (2013): 262–63.
- 23.
Catherine Mills, “Images and Emotions in Abortion Debates,” The American Journal of Bioethics 8, no. 12 (2008): 62.
- 24.
Deborah Lupton, The Social Worlds of the Unborn (Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 35–38.
- 25.
This of course has had profound consequences within the debates surrounding abortion and foetal rights. It has been well-theorized in the literature , where it is argued that the emotive effect of ‘this capacity to see the fetus [sic] … performing activities normally associated with babies’ has led to an intensification of the anti-abortion position. Catherine Mills, “Technology, Embodiment and Abortion ,” Internal Medicine Journal 35 (2005): 427. Mills argues that ‘taking the possibility of a “visual bioethics” seriously requires that more attention is paid to the emotive and affective impact of images on ethical intuitions.’ See “Images and Emotions in Abortion Debates,” 61.
- 26.
Lymer and Utley, 265. See also Myra J. Hird, “The Corporeal Generosity of Maternity,” Body & Society 13, no. 1 (2007): 15.
- 27.
See, for example, Clare Hanson, A Cultural History of Pregnancy (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 154–61.
- 28.
For instance, see the All Things Surrogacy website: http://allthingssurrogacy.org.
- 29.
Melinda Cooper and Catherine Waldby, Clinical Labor: Tissue Donors and Research Subjects in the Global Bioeconomy (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2014), 85.
- 30.
Amrita Pande, “This Birth and That: Surrogacy and Stratified Motherhood in India,” PhiloSophia 4, no. 1 (2014): 60.
- 31.
Gillian Goslinga-Roy, “Body Boundaries, Fiction and the Female Self: An Ethnography of Power, Feminism and the Reproductive Technologies,” Feminist Studies 26, no. 1 (2000).
- 32.
Martin, 66.
- 33.
See Dolezal, “Phenomenology and Intercorporeality in the Case of Commercial Surrogacy.”
- 34.
Pande, 50.
- 35.
“Transnational Commercial Surrogacy in India: Gifts for Global Sisters?,” Reproductive BioMedicine Online 23 (2011): 620.
- 36.
Rosalyn Diprose, Corporeal Generosity: On Giving with Nietzsche, Merleau-Ponty, and Levinas (Albany: SUNY Press, 2002), 52.
- 37.
Wendy Lynne Lee, Contemporary Feminist Theory and Activism: Six Global Issues (Peterborough, Ontario: Broadview Press, 2010), 67. See also Pande, “Transnational Commercial Surrogacy in India: Gifts for Global Sisters?,” 620.
- 38.
It should also be noted that ‘the gift’ is also used metaphorically to discuss maternal-foetal relations, where the pregnant women is seen to give the ‘gift’ of life. See, for example, Hird.
- 39.
In fact, as Kelly Oliver notes, the terminological shift between ‘what used to be called surrogate mothers, now called gestational carriers’ is also very telling when considering shifting ideas of who counts as ‘real’ kin. See Kelly Oliver , Technologies of Life and Death: From Cloning to Capital Punishment (New York: Fordham University Press, 2013), 52.
- 40.
For example, see http://www.drpadmajafertility.com/surrogacy/ (accessed 8th January 2015).
- 41.
Elly Teman, Birthing a Mother: The Surrogate Body and the Pregnant Self (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010), 58.
- 42.
Judith Still, “Figures of Oriental Hospitality: Nomads and Sybarites,” in Mobilizing Hospitality: The Ethics of Social Relations in a Mobile World, ed. Jennie G. Molz and Sarah Gibson (Surrey: Ashgate, 2007), 194.
- 43.
Jacques Derrida , Adieu to Emmanuel Levinas, trans. Pascale-Anne Brault (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999), 21.
- 44.
Immanuel Kant, Perpetual Peace, trans. Mary Campbell Smith (New York: Cosimo, 2005), 17–18.
- 45.
Derrida identifies the aporetic tension at the heart of hospitality as central to the question of cosmopolitanism, or the question of nations welcoming immigrants or ‘strangers.’ While cosmopolitanism is a theme that is clearly relevant to the question of transnational surrogacy, as a practice which crosses national borders and involves nationalities traversing human bodies, I do not have the scope to explore the theme in this chapter. See Jacques Derrida, On Cosmopolitanism and Forgiveness, trans. Mark Dooley and Michael Hughes (London: Routledge, 2001).
- 46.
See Jacques Derrida and Anne Dufourmantelle, Of Hospitality: Anne Dufourmantelle Invites Jacques Derrida to Respond, trans. Rachel Bowlby (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 2000), 83.
- 47.
Emmanuel Levinas , Ethics and Infinity: Conversations with Phillip Nemo, trans. Richard A. Cohen (Pittsburgh: Duquesne University Press, 1985), 85.
- 48.
Entre Nous: Thinking-of-the-Other, trans. Michael B. Smith (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), 147.
- 49.
Otherwise Than Being or Beyond Essence, trans. Alphonso Lingus (Pittsburgh: Duquesne University Press, 1998), 12.
- 50.
Ethics and Infinity: Conversations with Phillip Nemo, 105.
- 51.
Ibid., 95.
- 52.
See also Derrida and Dufourmantelle, 83.
- 53.
Rosalyn Diprose , “Women’s Bodies between National Hospitality and Domestic Biopolitics ,” Paragraph 32, no. 1 (2009): 69.
- 54.
Emmanuel Levinas , Totality and Infinity: An Essay on Exteriority trans. Alfonso Lingus (Pittsburgh: Duquesne University Press, 1969).
- 55.
Ibid., 155.
- 56.
Ibid., 157.
- 57.
Ibid., 155.
- 58.
Ibid., 156.
- 59.
Derrida , Adieu to Emmanuel Levinas, 44.
- 60.
Ibid., 40, 44. See also Adriaan Peperzak, To the Other: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Emmanuel Levinas (West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 1993), 157.
- 61.
Lisa Guenther, The Gift of the Other: Levinas and the Politics of Reproduction (Albany: SUNY Press, 2006), 60.
- 62.
See, for example, Diane Perpich, “From the Caress to the Word: Transcendence and the Feminine in the Philosophy of Emmanuel Levinas ,” in Feminist Interpretations of Emmanuel Levinas, ed. Tina Chanter (Penn State University Press, 2001). See also Guenther, 58–73. Guenther’s critique is particularly relevant for the themes of this chapter, focusing on the maternal body in order to restore it to the status of human ‘subjectivity.’ And Tina Chanter, Time, Death and the Feminine: Levinas with Heidegger (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001), 241–62. Also see Stella Sandford, “Levinas , Feminism and the Feminine,” in The Cambridge Companion to Levinas, ed. Simon Critchley and Peter Osborne (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
- 63.
Irina Aristarkhova , Hospitality of the Matrix: Philosophy, Biomedicine and Culture (New York: Columbia University Press, 2012), 41. And Lisa Guenther makes much of Levinas’ passing comments regarding the ‘maternal body’ and bearing responsibility for the other in one’s own flesh. See: Guenther, 96.
- 64.
Aristarkhova , 44.
- 65.
Ibid., 42.
- 66.
See Andrew Parker, The Theorist’s Mother (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2012). Parker notes: ‘The mother is seldom included among the customary topoi of philosophy, even as philosophers rely heavily in their discourses on the tropes of maternity’ (p. 1).
- 67.
Aristarkhova , 29.
- 68.
Frances Gray, “Original Habitation: Pregnant Flesh as Absolute Hospitality,” in Coming to Life, ed. Sarah La Chance and Caroline Lundquist (New York: Fordham University Press, 2012), 71. Hannah Arendt, in fact, makes this conceptual move, making political natality dependent on the fact that women give birth. See Hannah Arendt , The Human Condition (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1998).
- 69.
Gray, 82–83.
- 70.
Aristarkhova , 3.
- 71.
Ibid.
- 72.
Ibid., 9.
- 73.
For example, see Jane Lymer, “Merleau-Ponty and the Affective Maternal-Foetal Relation,” Parrhesia 13 (2011).
- 74.
Sarah Jane Toledo and Kristin Zeiler, “Hosting for the Others’ Child?: Relational Work and Embodied Responsibility in Altruistic Surrogate Motherhood,” Feminist Theory (forthcoming).
- 75.
Aristarkhova , 169.
- 76.
Rothman , 63.
- 77.
Debra Satz , Why Some Things Should Not Be for Sale: The Moral Limits of Markets (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 122.
- 78.
Gray, 85.
- 79.
Anne Phillips, Our Bodies, Whose Property? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013), 96.
- 80.
Barbara Katz Rothman , “The Legacy of Patriarchy as Context for Surrogacy: Or Why Are We Quibbling over This?,” American Journal of Bioethics 14 (2014): 36.
- 81.
Rothman , ibid.
- 82.
Rothman , ibid., 37.
- 83.
See Twine.
- 84.
Dolezal, “Phenomenology and Intercorporeality in the Case of Commercial Surrogacy.”
- 85.
See Amrita Pande, “‘It May Be Her Eggs but It’s My Blood’: Surrogates and Everyday Forms of Kinship in India,” Qualitative Sociology 32 (2009): 380.
- 86.
Mary Lyndon Shanley and Sujatha Jesudason, “Surrogacy: Reinscribed or Pluralizing Understandings of Family,” in Families – Beyond the Nuclear Ideal: For Better or Worse?, ed. Daniela Cutas and Sarah Chan (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2012).
- 87.
Gray, 71–72. I explore the theme of pregnancy as the ground of human sociality and subjectivity further in other writing. See Luna Dolezal, “Feminist Reflections on the Phenomenological Foundations of Home,” Symposim: Canadian Journal of Continental Philosophy 21 (2017): 101–120.
- 88.
See, for example, Toledo and Zeiler.
- 89.
Aristarkhova , 43.
- 90.
Lakoff and Johnson, 5.
- 91.
Ibid., 10.
- 92.
Beeson, Darnovsky, and Lipman. See also Amrita Pande, “The Power of Narratives: Negotiating Commercial Surrogacy in India,” in Globalization and Transnational Surrogacy in India: Outsourcing Life, ed. S. Das Gupta and S. Das Dasgupta (New York: Lexington Books, 2014).
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Dolezal, L. (2018). The Metaphors of Commercial Surrogacy: Rethinking the Materiality of Hospitality Through Pregnant Embodiment. In: Fischer, C., Dolezal, L. (eds) New Feminist Perspectives on Embodiment. Breaking Feminist Waves. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72353-2_12
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