Abstract
The accelerated realities of a transnational era are challenging conventional notions of citizenship in ways yet to be determined. At the crux of any reassessment is the need to move beyond static, singular, and state-centric notions of citizenship that historically informed national models but can no longer abide by the multiple modalities of belonging and identity in a transnational world of globalization, the internationalization of universal human rights, surges in ethnonationalism, the intensification of diverse-diversities, and proliferation of diasporic communities. The chapter addresses the reframing of citizenship in the twenty-first century, what it means to be a citizen in a world of posts, trans, and isms, and what constitutes a meaningful citizenship from a transnational perspective across the settler domains of Canada, Aotearoa/New Zealand, and Australia.
The term transnational is commonly used to describe how people’s lives transcend a single geographical space and national borders. But reference to transnational is subject to varying interpretations (Jonathan Fox, Unpacking Transnational Citizenship, Annual Review of Political Science 8 (2005), 171–201): a descriptive sense of what is, as a variable (a difference that makes a difference), an interpretive lens that offers new possibilities, and a lived-reality. At its narrowest, it can be defined as the process by which migrants forge and maintain ties that span or transcend national borders, in effect, creating new social spaces that are multilocal in defining who belongs, how they belong, and what belonging entitles (Sandercock, Planning; Conference Notes, Rethinking the Transnational Perspective: Shortcomings and New Approaches. International Workshop, University of Fribourg, 13–14 September 2012.) In this chapter, however, I am using the prefix trans in transnational in the broadest way possible, including references to trans as across national borders (dual citizenship); beyond the nation-state (cosmopolitanism and universal human rights); transcending state boundaries (diaspora + transmigrants + cosmopolitanism); transversing national space (multiversal citizenship); transpositional (Indigenous citizenship); and transforming (disruptive change). Collectively, a trans perspective secures a new discursive framework for rethinking the politics of citizenship in a world of posts, trans, and isms.
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Notes
- 1.
Seyla Benhabib, The Rights of Others: Aliens, Residents, and Citizens (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004).
- 2.
Seyla. The Rights of Others; Randall Hansen, The Poverty of Postnationalism: Citizenship, Immigration, and the New Europe, Theor Soc 38 (2009), 1–24; Yasemin Nuhoglu Soysal, Limits of Citizenship: Migrants and Postnational Membership in Europe (University of Chicago Press, 1994); Ayelet Shachar, Introduction: Citizenship and the Right to Have Rights, Citizenship Studies 18, 2 (2014), 114–124.
- 3.
Aloys Fleischmann, Nancy van Styvendale, and Cody McCarroll, Narratives of Citizenship: Indigenous and Diasporic Peoples Unsettle the Nation State (Edmonton: University of Alberta, 2011).
- 4.
Paul Nadasdy, First Nations, Citizenship and Animals, or Why Northern Indigenous People Might Not Want to Live in a Zoopolis, Canadian Journal of Political Science 49, 1 (2016), 1–20.
- 5.
Ann-Marie Field, Counter-Hegemonic Citizenship: LGBT Communities and the Politics of Hate Crimes in Canada, Citizenship Studies 11, 3 (2007); 247–262; Sally Hines, A Pathway to Diversity?: Human Rights, Citizenship, and the Politics of Transgender, Contemporary Politics 15, 1 (2009), 87–102; Patricia K. Wood, Aboriginal/Indigenous Citizenship: An Introduction. Citizenship Studies 7, 4 (2003), 371–378.
- 6.
Robert W. Glover, Radically Rethinking Citizenship: Disaggregation, Agonistic Pluralism, and the Politics of Immigration in the United States, Political Studies 59, 2 (2011), 209–229.
- 7.
Alan Simmons, Immigration and Canada (Toronto: Canadian Scholars Press, 2010).
- 8.
Andrew Linklater, Citizenship and Sovereignty in the Post-Westphalian State, European Journal of International Relations 2, 1 (1996), 77–103; Lucy Jackson. Intimate Citizenship? Rethinking the Politics and Experiences of Citizens.
- 9.
Andrew C. Theophanous, Understanding Social Justice: An Australian Perspective (Carlton, Victoria: Elikia Books, 1994); Gerard Delanty, European Citizenship: A Critical Assessment, Citizenship Studies 11, 1 (2007), 63–7; Anna Edmundson, Kylie Message, and Ursula Frederick, Introduction – Compelling Cultures: Representing Cultural Diversity and Cohesion in Multicultural Australia, Humanities Research XV, 1 (2009), 1–6; Kathy-Ann Tan, Reconfiguring Citizenship and National Identity in the North American Literary Imagination (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2015).
- 10.
Lily Cho, Diasporic Citizenship. Inhabiting Contradictions and Challenging Exclusions, American Quarterly 59, 2 (2007), 467–478.
- 11.
Janine Brodie, Citizenship and Solidarity: Reflections on the Canadian Way, Citizenship Studies 6, 4 (2002), 377–394.
- 12.
Peter Kivisto and Thomas Faist, Citizenship: Discourse, Theory, and Transnational Prospects (Oxford: Blackwell, 2008). Bridget Byrne, Making Citizens. Politics of Identity and Citizenship Series (Palgrave Macmillan, UK, 2014).
- 13.
Roger Maaka and Augie Fleras, The Politics of Indigeneity (Dunedin, NZ: Otago University Press, 2005).
- 14.
It goes without saying that references to a transnational citizenship (or that a multicultural citizenship or global citizenship, etc.) do not connote a legal status with corresponding set of rights. It represents a commitment (aspirational ideal) to think, talk, and do citizenship differently through a lens that imagines the world as a global community of Indigenous peoples and transmigrants with rights (Stromquist, Theorizing Global Citizenship),
- 15.
Ather H. Akbari and Martha MacDonald, Immigration Policy in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United States: An Overview of Recent Trends, International Migration Review 48, 3 (2014), 801–822.
- 16.
Inder Marwah and Triadafilos Triadafilopoulos, Europeanizing Canadas Citizenship Regime. Commentary. Canada-Europe Transatlantic Dialogue: Seeking Transnational Solutions to 21st Century Problems, Strategic Knowledge Cluster (2009).
- 17.
Christian Joppke, Through the European Looking Glass: Citizenship Tests in the USA, Australia, and Canada, Citizenship Studies 17, 1 (2013), 1–15; Geoffrey Brahm Levey, Liberal Nationalism and the Australian Citizenship Tests, Citizenship Studies 18,2 (2013), 175–189.
- 18.
Jatinder Mann, The Introduction of Multiculturalism in Canada and Australia, 1960s–1970s, Nations and Nationalism 18, 3 (2012), 483–503; Jatinder Mann, The Search for a New National Identity: The Rise of Multiculturalism in Canada and Australia, 1890s–1970s (New York: Peter Lang Publishing, 2016); Saskia Sassen, Towards Post-National and Denationalized Citizenship in Handbook of Citizenship Studies, eds. Engin F. Isin and Bryan S. Turner (Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, 2002), 277–292.
- 19.
Soysal, Limits of Citizenship.
- 20.
Audrey Macklin, Citizenship Revocation, the Privilege to Have Rights and the Production of the Alien, Queens Law Journal 40, 1 (2014), 1–32.
- 21.
Janine Brodie, Restructuring and the New Citizenship in Rethinking Restructuring: Gender and Social Change, ed. I. Bakker (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1996), 126–140; Catherine Dauvergne, The New Politics of Immigration and the End of Settler Societies (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2016); Elke Winter, Becoming Canadian: Making Sense of Recent Changes to Citizenship Rules, IRPP (Institute for Research on Public Policy), Study No. 44, January 2014; Joppke, Citizenship Tests.
- 22.
Sandra Elgersma, Citizenship. Library of Parliament Research Publications (Ottawa, 2014); Environics Institute, Canadians on Citizenship: The First National Survey on What it Means to be Canadian, Final Report, February 2012.
- 23.
Anna Korteweg and Jennifer Elrick, Citizenship Research Synthesis 2009–2013 A CERIS Report Submitted to Citizenship and Immigration Canada, Ottawa, 2014; Paul Spoonley and Richard Bedford, Welcome to our World? Immigration and the Reshaping of New Zealand (Auckland: Dunmore Publishing, 2012); Augie Fleras, Immigration Canada (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2014).
- 24.
Augie Fleras, The Politics of Multiculturalism (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009).
- 25.
Martin Papillon and Gina Consentino, Lessons From Abroad: Towards a New Social Model for Canadas Aboriginal Peoples, CPRN Social Architecture Report, No f/40, April 2004.
- 26.
Andrew Baldwin, Laura Cameron, and Audrey Kobayashi, Rethinking the Great White North (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2011); Ghassan Hage, White Nation: Fantasies of White Supremacy in a Multicultural Australia (Routledge, 1998).
- 27.
Leonie Sandercock, Planning in the Ethno-culturally Diverse City: A Comment, Planning Theory and Practice 4,3 (2003), 319–323.
- 28.
Alfred Taiaiake, First Nations Perspective on Political Identity, First Nations Citizenship Research and Policy Series, June 2009; Lisa Monchalin, The Colonial Problem. An Indigenous Perspective on Crime and Injustice in Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2015); Nadasdy, First Nations.
- 29.
Mikaela, M. Adams, Who Belongs? Race, Resources, and Tribal Citizenship in the Native South (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016); Alan Cairns, Citizens Plus. Aboriginal Peoples and the Canadian State (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2000); Sakej Youngblood Henderson. Sui Generis and Treaty Citizenship, Citizenship Studies 6, 4 (2002), 415–440; Lynn Chabot, The Concept of Citizenship in Western Liberal Democracies and in First Nations: A Research Paper, Prepared for the Governance Policy Directorate, Lands and Trusts Services, INAC, March 2007; Sheryl Lightfoot, The International Indigenous Rights Discourse and its Demand for Multilevel Citizenship in Multilevel Citizenship, ed. Willem Maas (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013).
- 30.
Alfred, First Nations Perspectives.
- 31.
Nivedita Menon, Thinking Through the Postnation, Economic and Political Weekly 44, 10 (2009), 70–77.
- 32.
Joyce Green, Introduction: Honoured in their Absence: Indigenous Human Rights in Indivisible: Indigenous Human Rights, ed. Joyce Green (Halifax: Fernwood, 2014), 1–16; Winter, Becoming Canadian; Fiona MacDonald and Ben Wood, Potential Through Paradox: Indigenous Rights as Human Rights, Citizenship Studies, Published online, 9 February 2016.
- 33.
John Borrows, Landed Citizenship: Narratives of Aboriginal Political Participation in Citizenship, Diversity, and Pluralism: Canadian and Comparative Perspectives, ed. Alan Cairns (Montreal & Kingston: McGill-Queens University Press, 1999), 72–86; Maaka and Fleras, The Politics of Indigeneity.
- 34.
Cairns, Citizen-Plus.
- 35.
Linda Briskman, Citizens or Denizens?: The Stolen Generations in Australia in Reconfiguring Citizenship: Social Exclusion and Diversity within Inclusive Citizenship Practices, eds. L. Dominelli and M Moosa-Mitha (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2014), 105–116; Paula Gerber, Aboriginal People are Still Denied Full Citizenship. The Drum (Australian Broadcasting Corporation), 31 October 2012; Kiri West-McGruer and Louise Humpage, Indigenous Stakeholders? Theorizing External Citizenship for Maori in Australia, MAI Journal 4,2 (2015), 104–118.
- 36.
Maggie Walter, The Race Bind: Denying Australian Indigenous Rights in Indivisible: Indigenous Human Rights, ed. by Joyce Green (Halifax: Fernwood, 2014), 43–64; David Mercer, Citizen Minus? Indigenous Australians and the Citizenship Question, Citizenship Studies 7, 4 (2003), 421–425.
- 37.
Lindsey MacDonald, Te Ata O Tu, and Paul Muldoon, Globalisation, Neo Liberalism, and the Struggle for Indigenous Citizenship, Australian Journal of Political Science, Published online 15 August 2006.
- 38.
Nicolas Peterson and Will Sanders, Citizenship and Indigenous Australians: Changing Conceptions and Possibilities (Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999).
- 39.
Kate McMillan, Developing Citizens: Subjects, Aliens, and Citizens in New Zealand since 1840 in Tangata Tangata: The Changing Ethnic Contours of New Zealand, ed. Paul Spoonley (Southbank Victoria: Thomson/Dunmore, 2004), 267–290.
- 40.
Mason Durie, Measuring Maori Well-Being, New Zealand Treasury Guest Lecture Series, 1 August 2006. Nicole Roughan, Te Tiriti and the Constitution: Rethinking Citizenship, Justice, Equality, and Democracy, New Zealand Journal of Public and International Law 3 (2005), 285–303; Anne Salmond, Ontological Quarrels: Indigeneity, Exclusion, and Citizenship in a Relational World, Anthropological Theory 12,2 (2012), 115–141; Rachel Simon-Kumar, Difference and Diversity in Aotearoa/New Zealand: Post-neoliberal Constructions of the Ideal Citizen, Ethnicities 14, 1 (2014), 136–159.
- 41.
Salmond, Ontological Quarrels. See also Stephens in this collection.
- 42.
Paul Spoonley, Migration and the Reconstruction of Citizenship in Late Twentieth Century Aotearoa, Migration and Citizenship Aotearoa APMRN, 1997. Available: http://www.unesco.org; Paul Spoonley, New Diversity, Old Anxieties in New Zealand: the Complex Identity Politics and Engagement of a Settler Society, Ethnic and Racial Studies, Published online 19 November 2014; David Pearson, Rethinking Citizenship in Aotearoa New Zealand in Tangata Tangata: The Changing Ethnic Contours of New Zealand, ed. Paul Spoonley (Southbank, Victoria: Thomson/Dunmore, 2004), 291–308; David Pearson, Citizenship, Culturalisms and Civic Pluralism: Comparing New Zealand and Australia in Cultural Citizenship and the Challenges of Globalization, ed. W. Ommundsen, M. Leach, and A. Vandenberg (Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press, 2010), 147–164.
- 43.
MacDonald and Muldoon, Globalisation.
- 44.
Augie Fleras and Paul Spoonley, Recalling Aotearoa (Auckland: OUP, 1999).
- 45.
Carl F. Stychin, Unity in Diversity: European Citizenship Through the Lens of Popular Culture, Windsor Yearbook of Access to Justice 29 (2011), 1–17.
- 46.
Augie Fleras, Inequality Matters (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 2017).
- 47.
Derek Wayne Kornelsen, Postcolonial Citizenship: Reconceiving Authority and Belonging in Settler Societies, Ph.D. diss., University of British Columbia, 2015.
- 48.
Carole Blackburn, Differentiating Indigenous Citizenship: Seeking Multiplicity in Rights, Identity and Sovereignty in Canada, American Ethnologist 36, 1 (2009), 66–78.
- 49.
Yvonne M. Hebert and Lori Wilkinson, Introduction in The Citizenship Debates: Conceptual, Policy, Experiential, and Educational Issues, ed. by Y.M Hebert (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002), 3–36; Alfred, First Nations Perspectives.
- 50.
Martin Papillon, Abstract – From Second-Class to Multilevel Citizenship: Indigenous Peoples and Canadas Neocolonial Citizenship Regime, Paper presented to the CPSA 2016 Annual Conference Programme, University of Calgary, Alberta, 2016; Christa Scholtz, Negotiating Claims (New York: Taylor and Francis, 2006).
- 51.
Aoileann Ni Mhurchu, Citizenship Beyond State Sovereignty in Routledge Handbook of Global Citizenship Studies, eds. E. Isin and P. Nyers (New York: Routledge, 2014); Lightfoot, Indigenous Rights Discourse; Henderson, Sui Generis; MacDonald and Muldoon, Globalisation.
- 52.
Marc Hanvelt and Martin Papillon, Parallel or Embedded? Aboriginal Self-Government and the Changing Nature of Canadian Citizenship in Insiders and Outsiders: Alan Cairns and the Reshaping of Canadian Citizenship, eds. G. Kernerman and P. Resnick (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2005), 242–257.
- 53.
Blackburn, Differentiating Indigenous Citizenship.
- 54.
Kevin McKay, Nisga’a Citizenship Negotiation, Implementation and Administration, Paper Presented by the Chair of the Nisga’a Lisims Parliament for AFN National Forum on First Nations Citizenship, November 2011.
- 55.
Blackburn, Differentiating Indigenous Citizenship; Henderson, Sui Generis.
- 56.
Augie Fleras, Unequal Relations: An Introduction to Race, Ethnic, and Indigenous Dynamics in Canada, 8th edition (Toronto: Pearson, 2016).
- 57.
Birte Siim and Judith Squires, Contesting Citizenship: Comparative Analysis, Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy 10,4 (2007), 403–416.
- 58.
Engin F. Isin and Peter Nyers, Introduction: Globalizing Citizenship Studies in Routledge Handbook of Global Citizenship Studies, eds. E. Isin and P. Nyers (New York: Routledge, 2014).
- 59.
Mihaela Nedelcu, Migrants’ New Transnational Habitus: Rethinking Migration Through a Cosmopolitan Lens in a Digital Age, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 38, 9 (2012), 1335–1356.
- 60.
Etienne Balibar, We, the People of Europe? Reflections on Transnational Citizenship (Princeton University Press, 2004); Isin and Nyers, Globalizing Citizenship Studies.
- 61.
D. G. Papademetrius and N. Banulescu-Bogdan, Understanding Transnational Dynamics in European Immigration Policy, MPI Europe Policy Brief, July 2016. See also Stasiulis in this collection.
- 62.
Joan G. DeJaeghere, Critical Citizenship Education for a Multicultural Society, Interamerican Journal of Education for Democracy 2, 2 (2009), 223–231.
- 63.
Editorial, Figuring Youth Citizenship: Communicative Practices Mediating the Cultural Politics of Citizenship and Age, Language & Communication 33 (2013), 473–480.
- 64.
Janet McLaughlin and Jenna Hennebry, Managed into the Margins: Examining Citizenship and Human Rights of Migrant Workers in Canada in The Human Right to Citizenship: A Slippery Concept, ed. R. E. Howard-Hassmann and M. Walton-Roberts (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015), 176–190; Iris Marion Young, Inclusion and Democracy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990).
- 65.
Will Kymlicka and Wayne Norman, Citizenship in Diverse Societies (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 2000); Marian MacGregor, Citizenship in Name Only: Constructing Meaningful Citizenship Through a Calibration of the Values Attached to Waged Labour, Disability Studies Quarterly 32, 3 (2012), 22–33; Deborah J. Yashar, Citizen Regimes and Indigenous Politics in Latin America, Proto-Paper presented to the Claiming Citizenship in America A Conference Organized by the Canadian Research Chair in Governance and Citizenship, 27 May 2005.
- 66.
Lena Dominelli, Problematising Concepts of Citizenship and Citizenship Practices in Reconfiguring Citizenship: Social Exclusion and Diversity within Inclusive Citizenship Practices, eds. L. Dominelli and M Moosa-Mitha (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2014), 13–22; Lena Dominelli, Critical Theories: Reflecting on Citizenship Status and Practices in Reconfiguring Citizenship: Social Exclusion and Diversity within Inclusive Citizenship Practices, eds. L. Dominelli and M Moosa-Mitha (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2014), 253–262; Nadasdy, First Nations.
- 67.
Jeff Hearn, Elbieta H. Oleksy, and Dorota Golanska, Introduction: The Limits of Gendered Citizenship in The Limits of Gendered Citizenship: Context and Complexities, eds. J. Hearn, E. H. Oleksy, and D. Golanska (Linkoping University Electronic Press, 2013), 7–22. K. P. Kallio, J. Hakli, and P. Backlund, Lived Citizenship as the Locus of Political Agency in Participatory Policy, Citizenship Studies 19, 1 (2015), 101–119.
- 68.
Editorial, Figuring Youth Citizenship.
- 69.
Ruth Lister, Inclusive Citizenship: Realizing the Potential, Citizenship Studies 11, 1 (2007), 49–61. James Tully, On Global Citizenship: James Tully in Dialogue (New York: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2014); Engin F. Isin, Citizenship After Orientalism: Transforming Political Theory (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005); Steven Robins, Andrea Cornwall, and Bettina von Lieres, Rethinking Citizenship in the Postcolony, Third World Quarterly 29, 6 (2008), 1069–1086.
- 70.
Peter Kivisto and Thomas Faist, Citizenship: Discourse, Theory, and Transnational Prospects (Oxford: Blackwell, 2008); Daniela Cherubini, Intersectionality and the Study of Lived Citizenship: A Case Study on Migrant Womens Experiences, Andalusia Graduate Journal of Social Science 8, 20 (2011), 114–126; Kalio et al., Lived Citizenship.
- 71.
Nedulcu, Transnational Habitus.
- 72.
Y. Hussain and P. Bagguley, Citizenship, Ethnicity, and Identity, Sociology 39, 3 (2005), 402–425; Engin F. Isin and Greg Nielson, Acts of Citizenship (New York: Zed Books, 2008); Kenneth McGill, Global Inequality: Anthropological Insights (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2016).
- 73.
Augie Fleras, Beyond Multiculturalism: Managing Complex Diversities in Postmulticultural Canada in Revisiting Multiculturalism in Canada, eds. L. Wong and S. Guo (Rotterdam: Sense Publishers, 2015), 297–321.
- 74.
Fethi Mansouri and Michele Lobo, Introduction - Social Inclusion: Exploring the Concept in Migration, Citizenship, and Intercultural Relations: Looking Through the Lens of Social Citizenship, ed. F. Mansouri and M. Lobo (Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing, 2014), 1–12.
- 75.
Sandercock, Planning.
- 76.
Bryan Smith and Pamela Rogers, Towards a Theory of Decolonizing Citizenship, Citizenship Education Research Journal 5, 10 (2016), 59–72.
- 77.
Fleras, Politics of Multiculturalism.
- 78.
Ruth Lister, Dialectics of Citizenship, Hypatia 12, 4 (1997), 6–26.
- 79.
Robert Latham, What are We? From a Multicultural to a Multiversal Canada, International Journal Winter (2007–08), 23–41; Jan Blommaert, Citizenship, Language, and Superdiversity: Towards Complexity, Journal of Language, identity, and Education 12, 3 (2013); Fleras, Beyond Multiculturalism.
- 80.
Green, Indigenous Human Rights; Yashar, Citizenship Regimes.
- 81.
Isin and Nyers, Introduction; Shachar, Introduction.
- 82.
Hiroshi Motomura, Americans in Waiting (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006).
- 83.
Mabel Berezin, Territory, Emotion, and identity in Europe Without Borders, eds. M. Berezin and M. Schain (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003), 1–22.
- 84.
Daiva Stasiulis and Abigail Bakan, Negotiating Citizenship: Migrant Women in Canada and the Global System (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 2005); Shachar, Introduction; Hansen, Poverty of Postnationalism.
- 85.
Lena Dominelli, Conclusions in Reconfiguring Citizenship: Social Exclusion and Diversity within Inclusive Citizenship Practices, eds. L. Dominelli and M Moosa-Mitha (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2014), 263–266.
- 86.
Irene Bloemraad, Theorizing and Analyzing Citizenship in Multicultural Societies, Sociological Quarterly 56, 4 (2015), 591–606; Benito Cao, Environment and Citizenship (New York: Routledge, 2015).
- 87.
Nelly P. Stromquist, Theorizing Global Citizenship: Discourses, Challenges, and Implications for Education, Inter-American Journal of Education for Democracy 2, 1 (2009).
- 88.
Cao, Environment and Citizenship, 61.
- 89.
Cross-national differences in defining the parameters of citizenship can be discerned as well. Unlike Australia and Canada, permanent residents in New Zealand do not require citizenship status to vote in elections, provided they have completed one year of permanent residency. Canada continues to confer citizenship on anyone born on Canadian soil whereas Australia and New Zealand restrict this right to someone born of a permanent resident or citizen. The moral contract between newcomers and Australian citizenship is explicit in terms of what is expected of citizens and what practices are allowed (Gilles Paquet, Governance and Emergent Transversal Citizenship: Towards a New Nexus of Moral Contracts in From Subjects to Citizens: A Hundred Years of Citizenship in Australia and Canada, Proceedings of a conference in Ottawa, 2001, eds. P. Boyer et al. (Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press, 2004), 231–262). Australians tend to support a bottom up commitment to citizenship at local, state, and commonwealth levels, thereby solidifying the identities, commonalities, and the social glue that binds Australians. The fact that Australia celebrates an annual Citizenship Day each year symbolizes its commitment. By contrast, Canada’s approach to citizenship entails minimal reflection (bordering on indifference?), but with notable flexibility (Environics Institute in partnership with Institute for Canadian Citizenship, Maytree Foundation, CBC News, and RBC, Canadians on Citizenship Final Report, February 2012; L. Oakes and J. Warren, Language, Citizenship and Identity in Quebec (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007)). It’s also focused on legal status and formal entitlements rather than active participation.
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Fleras, A. (2017). Rethinking Citizenship Through Transnational Lenses: Canada, New Zealand, and Australia. In: Mann, J. (eds) Citizenship in Transnational Perspective. Politics of Citizenship and Migration. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-53529-6_2
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