Abstract
Stating that imported Chinese food has a negative image in Japan is neither new nor surprising. Conventional explanations of this phenomenon focus on the litany of food scandals associated with imported Chinese food, together with a near-constant wave of scandals in China itself, which have been subject to saturation media coverage in Japan since the turn of the century. However, this chapter argues that the hyperbolic public and media response is disproportionate to the food safety risks associated with the consumption of Chinese food. This chapter starts by assessing two common explanations for the widespread negative perceptions of Chinese food: (1) the development of a consumer awareness in Japan and (2) a heightening risk of consuming Chinese imported foods in the 2000s. The chapter then outlines potential alternative factors, which have also played a key role in the increasingly negative perceptions of Chinese food imports. While there has been an overall increase in the number of reported Chinese food scandals since the 2000s, broader Japanese perceptions of China, the related nature of media coverage of events in China, and the changing nature of Chinese food incidents, among others, are central factors in the development of the perception of a Chinese food threat.
This chapter is based on an unpublished manuscript, written in cooperation with Paul O’Shea, Aarhus University. Portions of this work have been presented at the international workshop ‘Food, Feeding and Eating In and Out of Asia’, Copenhagen University, Denmark, June 24–26, 2015, and at the Nordic Association of Japanese Studies Annual Conference, Lund University, Sweden, March 5–6, 2015. The author wishes to thank Paul O’Shea for useful comments on earlier drafts of this chapter.
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Notes
- 1.
The biased portrayal of these figures will be touched upon below. Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (MHLW), ‘Statistics of imported foods monitoring’.
- 2.
Equally interesting is that 61% of the Chinese respondents mentioned their doubts about the safety of Japanese food. Nihon Research Center, Gallup International, ‘Ryokō, shoku no anzensei’.
- 3.
Zhou and Fang, ‘Multiple Rationality’.
- 4.
Kishi, ‘Recalling the Summer of Eating Dangerously’.
- 5.
Examples of this are among others: Kakuchi, ‘Scandals force Japanese to watch what they eat’; Organic Consumer’s Association, ‘Food Scandals Help Japan’s Organic Movement Grow’; Sato, ‘Cultural Politics of Food Safety’, 575; Cwiertka, ‘Culinary Culture and the Making of a National Cuisine’, 415–428; Nottage, Product Safety.
- 6.
See Kojima, 63; Jonker et al., 6–7.
- 7.
See also Farina in this volume.
- 8.
In 1955 in the western areas of Japan, some 12,000 newborn babies suffered from poisoning and another 130 died after consuming milk contaminated with arsenic from the Morinaga Milk Company. This event was particularly notable for the large number of people of the same age group who fell victim to the poison. See Ui, Industrial Pollution in Japan.
- 9.
In 1968, rice oil from the Kanemi depot in Fukuoka was found to be contaminated with PCBs (Polychlorinated Biphenyl). The estimated number of victims was around 15,000 persons, but only 1,081 cases were officially recognized as poisoning. See Ui, Industrial Pollution in Japan.
- 10.
An example of this is the 1957 revision of the Food Safety Law (1947), after the Morinaga Milk incident.
- 11.
Jussaume et al., ‘Food Safety in Modern Japan’, 218.
- 12.
The Minamata mercury poisonings occurred in Minamata (Kyushu) as of 1956 and in Niigata (Honshu) as of 1965, where inhabitants were inflicted with mercury poisoning as nearby chemical companies dumped their industrial toxic waste directly into the local bay and water streams, affecting the local food supply. Many of the more than 2,000 recognized victims brought their case to court and in the 2000s the Minamata company, Chisso Corporation was forced to pay compensation and clean up its contamination.
- 13.
It is important to distinguish between food safety (shokuhin no anzen) and food security (shokuryō anzen hoshō). In the Japanese context, the first refers to whether or not food is safe to eat, the second is a reference to food supply and availability. A third term often used is self-sufficiency (shokuryō jikyūritsu), which refers to the ratio of domestically consumed food that is supplied by domestic production.
- 14.
Maclachlan, ‘Global Trends vs. Local Traditions’, 250–251. Nihon Shōhisha Renmei.
- 15.
Jussaume et al., ‘Food Safety in Modern Japan’, 218–219.
- 16.
Maclachlan, Consumer Politics in Postwar Japan, 175–200.
- 17.
Jussaume and Judson, ‘Public Perception’, 237; MacLachlan, Consumer Politics in Postwar Japan, 175–200; Nihon Shōhisha Renmei, interview with author, December 9, 2015, Tokyo, Japan.
- 18.
Of that percentage, more than 70% of the women did not know why certain additives were added. Yomiuri Shimbun, December 28, 1974.
- 19.
Jussaume and Judson, ‘Public Perception’, 246.
- 20.
Takeuchi, Nihon no shōhisha, 104. Interestingly, Takeuchi Naokazu, the founder of the JCU, at the time does not speak yet of shoku no anzen (food safety), but rather of shokuhin no osen (food pollution), linking the problems to boom-era Japan and its industrial pollution of agricultural land and fisheries.
- 21.
The Food and Drug Administratin (FDA) is an American agency in charge of public health, through the monitoring of e.g. food safety, drugs and pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and medical devices.
- 22.
During the media analysis, I encountered some difficulties concerning the Japanese translation of ‘food safety’. The earliest accounts of food safety incidents reported, often used for example shoku no osen, tightly linked to Japan’s industrial pollution and those related food problems. Despite different terminology over time, leading to different figures, the tendencies remain the same: increase in China-related articles between 2000 and 2010.
- 23.
Data retrieved from Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (MHLW). Imported Foods Inspection Services Home Page. Statistics of Imported Foods Monitoring.
- 24.
Reading from the statistics, the number of inspections during a certain year is linked to the number of violations in the years beforehand. ‘Trouble countries’ such as Ecuador or Vietnam receive a great number of examinations as a reaction to numerous violations in the past years. (Interestingly, this does not seem to apply to the USA, which, despite one of the highest percentages of violations/import, barely exceed the level of 10% of import examinations.) Also 15–20% of the Chinese food imports are checked, which is a high portion, especially when compared to other countries such as South-Korea, the USA, or Thailand. However, a manifestation of the improving food safety records of China can be detected in the declining amount of examinations on Chinese imports in recent years. Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (MHLW). Imported Foods Inspection Services Home Page. Statistics of Imported Foods Monitoring.
- 25.
Yamashita Kazuhito, interview with author, December 10, 2015, Tokyo, Japan.
- 26.
Duara, ‘Historical Narratives and Trans-nationalism in East Asia’, 105.
- 27.
Harootunian, Things Seen and Unseen, 409.
- 28.
Ferguson, ‘Culinary Nationalism’.
- 29.
Ohnuki-Tierney, Rice as Self, 131.
- 30.
This report was compiled in 2004, after incidents of excessive pesticide residues on vegetables imported from China, but before major media scares such as the poisoned dumpling scandal (January 2008) or the ‘cardboard bun hoax’ (July 2007). Jonker et al., ‘Food Safety and Quality Standards in Japan’, 30.
- 31.
See Assmann’s contribution in this volume.
- 32.
DeSoucey, ‘Gastronationalism’.
- 33.
Jonker et al., ‘Food Safety’, 1. Also see the contributions by Reiher, Kimura and Takeda in this volume.
- 34.
Fackler, ‘Safe Food for Japan’. Kakita, Anata mo tabeteru Chūgokusan.
- 35.
The 2008 melamine scandal was a food safety incident in China, when milk and infant formula were found to be adulterated with melamine. Official reports state an estimated 300,000 victims of melamine-related illnesses and six children died. Tracy, ‘The mutability of melamine’, 4.
- 36.
Interestingly, as of the 1970s, incidents involving pesticides are found in the records. However, the occurrence of these poisonings were proven to result from unawareness or mistakes. Yan, ‘Food Safety’, 709.
- 37.
Ibid., ‘Food Safety’, 709–710.
- 38.
Just et al., ‘Biosecurity’, 108; as mentioned in O’Shea, ‘Dodgy Dumplings’, 5.
- 39.
‘Abunai shokutaku dai, 4-dan: konmei no “Chūgoku media, bakuro gassen”’ [The dangerous dinner table: part 4. Chaotic ‘Chinese media, exposure battle’.] Shukan Asahi, August 3, 2007. The Fair Trade Commission (Kōsei Torihiki Iinkai) is a Japanese government commission, regulating economic competition.
- 40.
Hook, et al., Regional Risk, 19–24.
- 41.
Cabinet Office, ‘Gaikō ni kansuru seronchōsa’. The poll, which conducts a similar survey but reflecting both the Chinese and the Japanese side, published its results for 2015 at the time of writing. These figures show a slight improvement in affinity on both sides. http://www.genron-npo.net/en/pp/archives/5217.html.
- 42.
Ōnami and Kawano. ‘Chūgoku kirai no honshin.’
- 43.
Iwabuchi, ‘China, Japan’s Chimera’, 152–153.
- 44.
Genron NPO, ‘Dai nanakai Nicchū kyōdō yoron chōsa’.
- 45.
For the year 2014, this was 39.2%, as compared to the 31.2% of 2013. Genron NPO, ‘11th Japan-China Joint Opinion Poll Analysis Report’.
- 46.
‘Kankoku ni Chūgoku kyōi ron, nōsanbutsu no yunyū, kyūgekini zōka’ [China threat to South Korea as imports of agricultural products rapidly increase], Mainichi Shimbun, September 29, 1992.
- 47.
‘Sekai wa dō miru: Chūgoku seihin no anzensei mondai’ [How does the world look at it: safety problems with Chinese goods], Mainichi Shimbun, August 20, 2007.
- 48.
See Farina in this volume. Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF), ‘Monthly Statistics’.
- 49.
George Mulgan, Japan’s Agricultural Policy Regime, 152. Also see same volume for a more detailed account of the initial Japanese debate on how to deal with rising Chinese imports, and trying to satisfy worried farmers as well as demanding industry.
- 50.
See O’Shea’s contribution in this volume.
- 51.
Japan External Trade Organization (JETRO), ‘Guidebook for Export to Japan (Food Articles) 2011’.
- 52.
‘Matsutake kokusan shikō’ [Domestic Orientation for matsutake Mushrooms], Asahi Shimbun, October 9, 2008.
- 53.
Cwiertka, ‘Culinary Culture and the Making of a National Cuisine’, 415.
- 54.
See also Assmann’s article in this volume.
- 55.
Jentzsch and Walravens, ‘Consuming the Nation’.
- 56.
JETRO, ‘Guidebook for Export to Japan (Food Articles) (2011)’, 35.
- 57.
Halliday et al., ‘An Epidemic of Hepatitis A’, 852.
- 58.
‘Kimi wa matsutake wo mō tabeta ka’ [Have you already eaten matsutake mushrooms?], AERA, October 17, 1989, 62.
- 59.
Majone, Evidence, Argument, and Persuasion in the Policy Process.
- 60.
Wang et al., ‘The Transformation of Trust’, 19.
- 61.
Slovic, ‘Perception of Risk’, 280–285; Gardner, Risk: The Science and Politics of Fear.
- 62.
Interestingly, many of these ‘reported’ victims seemed to be phantom cases and a lot of the media coverage was dedicated to reporting on the negative result of medical checks on customers with supposed symptoms.
- 63.
Search using the CrossAsia database, using ‘Akuri fūzu’ [Aqli Foods], December 30, 2013–January 31, 2014.
- 64.
O’Shea, ‘Dodgy Dumplings’, 9–11, 14–15.
- 65.
Walravens, ‘Appetite for the Domestic’, unpublished manuscript.
- 66.
Food Safety Commission, ‘Food Safety Monitor Survey’.
- 67.
Ōnami and Kawano, ‘Chūgoku kirai no honshin’.
- 68.
Walravens, ‘Japan Facing a Rising China’, 133.
- 69.
Furthermore, it seems that also the series of domestic scandals and deliberate mislabelling are finally gaining ground within the Japanese public as well.
- 70.
Fujiu and Kimura, ‘Chūgoku tondemo shokuhin’. In a follow-up article a month later, Japanese traders, beekeepers, and eel-importers testify on Japanese responsibility, driven mainly by the continuous demand for cheaper foods by Japanese customers, concerning the problems relating to Chinese foods. ‘Chūgoku no “doku” wa nihonhatsu’, Aera, August 6, 2007, 29.
- 71.
Kato, ‘Shinrai dekiru ka?’.
- 72.
‘Fuanteina jidai ni ikinokori’.
- 73.
The Great Hanshin earthquake was a 6.9 magnitude earthquake which occurred on January 17, 1995 near Kobe, killing approximately 6,500 people.
- 74.
The Tokyo subway Sarin gas attack was an act of domestic terrorism in March 1995, when deadly sarin gas was released in five Tokyo subway stations in the government district. The Japanese cult movement Aum Shinrikyō was found guilty of the crime.
- 75.
Leheny, Think Global, Fear Local, 144. Suzuki and Ito, ‘Acceptance of Beck’s Theory in Japan’, 119–121.
- 76.
Beck, Risk Society, 21.
- 77.
Ibid., 75.
- 78.
He wanted to draw the attention of the company’s management to the poor working conditions in the factory, and in doing so he also affected Chinese customers. This part of the story, however, is largely ignored in the reporting in the Japanese mainstream media, leading to a lack of understanding about the Chinese side of the story.
- 79.
Beck, Risk Society, 75.
- 80.
See also Kimura in this volume. Fuhyō higai (harmful rumours) is a term that gained increasing resonance and acceptance in the aftermath of the Triple Disaster in 2011, when food products from the northeastern region of Japan were stigmatized for fear of radioactive contamination.
- 81.
‘Chūgoku-sei shokuhin, tsuzuku keikai shōhisha, kibishī me’ [Chinese-made foods, vigilance continues. Consumers with a strict eye], Asahi Shimbun, March 27, 2010. ‘Chūgoku-sei shokuhin, tabeta futari ga ken ni sōdan sūpā nado 81 shisetsu ni kaishū shōhin’ [Two people who consumed Chinese foods consult the prefecture. 81 establishments like supermarkets recall products], Yomiuri Shimbun, February 1st, 2008.
- 82.
Jonker et al., ‘Fod Safety’, 4.
- 83.
UNIPAC (Trading house), Interview with author, December 4, 2015, Tokyo, Japan. Saito Satoshi, Food Watch Japan (Food business analyst, journalist), Interview with author, February 16, 2016, Tokyo, Japan.
- 84.
See also the articles by Reiher and O’Shea in this volume.
- 85.
Takeuchi, Nihon no shōhisha, 104.
- 86.
Yamashita Kazuhito, interview with author, December 10, 2015, Tokyo, Japan.
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Walravens, T. (2017). Chinese Food Threatening the Japanese Table: Changing Perceptions of Imported Chinese Food in Japan. In: Niehaus, A., Walravens, T. (eds) Feeding Japan. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-50553-4_10
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