Keywords

Introduction

As the most populous country in the world, China is enjoying unprecedented economic growth, but this development has caused serious degradation of the country’s physical environment . The resulting environmental problems are particularly aggravated by China’s greatly expanding urbanization and ageing population. This chapter explores the country’s ecological deterioration issues in order to seek a balanced economic developmental strategy model. It examines the influences of population change and economic growth on the environment with the purpose of providing insights and lessons for achieving a better quality of economic growth and sustainability . Changes need to be made to ease the double burden of restoring the deteriorating ecosystems and improve people’s quality of life. We refer to Confucian and Taoist teachings to help support the arguments put forward.

Confucius (551–479 BC) was an educator and philosopher who founded and operated a private school. More than 2500 years ago, he advocated the unity of humankind with nature and other ideas to encourage the harmonious relationship between human activities and the natural environment . Nowadays, Confucian ideas are influencing the basics of life in China and other East Asian countries (Yao 2003a). It can be said that Confucius ’ thought aligns very well with what has become the basic concept of modern sustainability in the West. However, Mao’s slogan during the Cultural Revolution “People must be able to conquer nature” has led China to pursue economic prosperity without paying attention to the natural environment. As the most populous country in the world, China contributes greatly to the global environmental problems, particularly as they relate to climate change . Under the influence of global warming and the pressure from international communities, China is desperately seeking solutions.

In 1988, 74 Nobel Prize winners appealed in Paris: “If human beings want to live in peace and prosperity in the 21st century, they must look back 2500 years and seek the wisdom of Confucius” (Pan 2013; Zhang and Li 2000, p. 1). Building current civilization’s ecological awareness must be achieved through seeking the wisdom of Confucius and Lao Tzu , the two most famous Chinese philosophers (Kong 2009; Berthrong and Berthrong 2000; Cordier 1912). There were many differences between these two influential Chinese philosophers in terms of both their ways of thought and approach to life. Lao Tzu saw life on earth within its context in the wider cosmos and within the view that there is interdependence between all things animate and inanimate (Cordier 1912; Chiu 2011). While Confucius also spoke of the importance of this interdependence in terms of harmony, he focused on the ethical standards for people to live together (Yao 2003a, b). He introduced a way for people to learn to become more human and developed a code for effective leadership (Littlejohn 2005). Both Lao Tzu and Confucius referred to the Dao, which means the truth or the way. Jaspers (1957, p. 59) states “it is often held that Lao Tzu conceived the Dao as beyond good and evil, while Confucius moralised the Dao”. It could be said that Lao Tzu focused on our spiritual well-being and our connectivity with Earth and the universe, while Confucius focused on the ethical governance and management of a nation.

Is the Concept of Sustainability New to China ?

Aitken (1908) argued that Confucius grew up a place where the natural environment —the mountains, rivers, land, heavens, sun, moon and stars—was held as sacred. This connectively and high respect for nature would have been the same for Lao Tzu as their lives were almost in the same period. Lao Tzu taught many ways of maintaining the connectivity with nature including bringing animal movements into ritualistic dances. Confucius accepted all that to be natural; even in the appreciation of nature he prescribed an order.

The wisdom that both gave to China and to the world is relevant today, as we struggle to address ways to mitigate global climate change and as we address the mismatch between systems that we need to comply with for economic well-being, what our spirit wants and needs, and how we should live in harmony and interdependence with the living and nonliving things of Earth. We have gone through half a century in the world’s development with what seems to be a shift away from the spiritual wisdom of philosophers, such as Confucius and Lao Tzu, towards an economics-based rationale for living. In relation to fostering economic growth, Lebow (1955, p. 3) states that “we convert the buying and use of goods into rituals, that we seek our spiritual satisfactions, our ego satisfactions, in consumption.” Spirituality was perceived as the major competing interest to growth, which needed to be overcome. Jackson (2009, p. 39) refers to gross domestic product (GDP) as the means by which nations sum up market exchanges including household, community, business and government expenditure on goods and services. He states that this expenditure in the GDP is taken as a proxy for measuring satisfaction and well-being. Tied in with this, Jackson summarizes Sen’s point of view as follows: “The baseline for social functioning is always the current level of commodities. The avoidance of shame—a key feature of social flourishing—will drive material demand forward relentlessly” (2009, p. 147).

The trend of placing economics as the underpinning of national growth started to discard ancient wisdom and successfully replace spirituality with ego-driven consumerism. It seems that the state of the world today has reached a point where a growth-based economy is considered conventional—the norm, and that this is unsustainable (Jackson 2009). How do we bring sustainability back into our thinking? Is there wisdom in ancient philosophy that can guide us?

Confucius saw that customs were key to establishing order in a nation and he himself sought to learn from past wisdom . He said that “a man born in our days who returns to the ways of antiquity is a fool and brings misfortune upon himself” (Jaspers 1957, p. 44). The ways of antiquity were a priority for Confucius; however, his process in finding solutions, according to Jaspers, was to ask: “What is the old? How can we make it our own? How can we make it a reality?” (1957, p. 43).

Self-modelling what he thought was a starting point for Confucius. He developed what he saw as the essential qualities for a community and national leader and also the qualities for everyday people to transform themselves to be the best they could be. His teachings did not take anything for granted and included details of how to walk, greet, behave in different situations, how to bury the dead, how to administrate and work, how to be a family. If we apply this thinking today, perhaps we could be asking: what would be the equivalent customs for a sustainable person? How would they travel? What would they eat? How would they engage with diversity? How would they create work cultures in harmony with nature? “A man of humanity does not strive for life at the cost of injuring humanity” (Jaspers 1957, pp. 56–57).

Confucius promoted civic sense saying that a good citizen would not neglect their neighbours. They would honour the worthy and be able to work with diversity. High on his agenda was respect for parents. “If respect is absent, wherein should we differ from the beasts?” (Jaspers 1957, p. 46). To follow this family code of conduct might require restructuring of our modern day life imperatives where economic pressures prevail and are the highest on the list of priorities.

What Is the Wisdom of Confucius and Lao Tzu for Sustainability ?

The greatest strength of Confucianism is the wisdom regarding government. He advised that there were “aspects of government that had to be developed and there were aspects that had to be nurtured” (Jaspers 1957, p. 47). This nurturing can be interpreted as very early notions of a developmental, participatory approach to assist with change management and capacity building. Linked to the ability to achieve change, Confucius stated that a good government was led by a person who engendered the confidence of the people and provided opportunity for education. In his lifetime, he did not find a leader (a prince) with the qualities he saw as necessary but he did not give up on his teachings. Confucius did not lower his standards—as some thought he should. He founded a school for future statements, trusting in the long-term. Lao Tzu is said to have disapproved of Confucius’ planning process, his study regime and demand that people remain impartial. However, we today can draw from the strengths of both of these great Chinese philosophers and see that both elements are essential.

Both sages, Lao Tzu and Confucius , revered nature and the cosmos as sacred. It was with this foundation that Confucius developed his teachings of good citizenship, good leadership and how to run a successful nation. The same focus was used by Lao Tzu to develop his teachings and processes for engagement with nature and the celestial spheres. This underlining valuing of nature and the cosmos as scared is a critical point of difference between Confucius’ wisdom on governance and management and our current corporate systems, which seems to disconnect people from the spirituality and sacredness of the physical world. This detached objective approach is part of a package often included in what is seen as the western paradigm where consumerism has replaced spirituality and ethics, as was the intention in the Lebow (1955) plan.

As part of his teachings, Confucius called for impartiality in the leader, allowing for an open mind to absorb new ideas. This, again, can be argued as the birth of community development or participatory planning processes, with the impartial leader guiding the discussion, but not imposing the way forward. The impartiality is related to the objectivity required in corporate planning. However, it is not separated from strong ethical foundations in its teaching or its application. Lao Tzu lived in the world of nature and the cosmos. His response to Confucius according to Jaspers is:

To make up one’s mind to be impartial is in itself a kind of partiality … You had best study how it is that Heaven and Earth maintain their eternal course, that the sun and moon maintain their light, the stars their serried ranks, the birds and beasts their flocks, the trees and shrubs their station. Thus you too shall learn to guide your steps by Inward Power, to follow the course that the Way of Nature sets; and soon you will reach a goal where you will no longer need to go round laboriously advertising goodness and duty …. All this talk of goodness and duty, these perpetual pin-prinks unnerve and irritate the hearer …. The swan does not need a daily bath in order to remain white (1957, p. 59).

Confucius , however, had this inner power and referred to it often as an essential ingredient of his teaching. His focus was the ethical–political state, the qualities and customs of a good citizen of the Earth and a good leader of a nation. Lao Tzu’s focus was to create time, space and methods for one to commune with nature and the cosmos.

Tu (2001, p. 253) refers to New Confucian humanism as a source of inspiration for human flourishing in the twenty-first century. According to Tu (1998a), the age in which we live is one where the modern West is the most dynamic and transformative ideology in human history. He sees the achievements we have today—science and technology, industrial capitalism, market economy, democratic polity, mass communication, research universities, civil and military bureaucracies, and professional organizations, as part of the whole Enlightenment mentality. The Confucian Golden Rule: “Do not do unto others what you would not want others to do unto you” seems to rest forgotten, so is his understanding that: “In order to establish myself, I have to help others to enlarge themselves” (Tu 1998a, p. 7). His teachings reinforced the need for society to have ethical foundations and values of a consciousness that goes beyond anthropocentricism to that which embraces the whole of the Earth and beyond.

Confucianism is originally a philosophy, a way of life—not a religion. However, it provides a good ethics underpinning ordering of communities that is compatible with the foundations of many world religions. According to Tu (1998a, b), Western, Eastern and Indigenous spiritualities have informed the Enlightenment mentality while the Confucian tradition avoids anthropocentrism (human-centeredness) in favour of anthropocosmism (or seeing humans as part and parcel of the cosmos). A re-examining of the link between modern religious traditions in the West is needed to position the matter/spirit, body/mind, sacred/profane, human/nature, creator/creature realities in the new mentality and to go beyond anthropocentrism (Tu 1998a).

At the core of Confucianism is the appreciation that human beings are sentient, social, political, historical and metaphysical beings (Tu 1998a). Confucianism refutes any reductionist models that collapse people into anything less; however, the human being has to learn how to be human through transformation in communion with self, community, nature and the transcendent (Tu 1998a).

According to Moller (2011, p. 56), Confucianism and Taoism both view nature, human beings and the cycles of nature as a holistic system in which humans must not only be in harmony with other beings, but also with nature itself. They see people as part of a network of ecological and social relationships undergoing constant change. Being part of the ecology, humans should not use it according to their own interests. This concept leads to a notion of nature-based sustainability and helps to ensure the protection of nature and its resources. When developing its economy, has China’s past practice followed these principles?

Economic Prosperity and Environmental Deteriorations in China

Figure 18.1 shows China’s share of global gross domestic product (GDP) adjusted for purchasing power parity (PPP dollars) from 2003 to 2013. In 2013, China’s share of GDP was estimated at 16 %.

Fig. 18.1
figure 1

China’s share of global GDP (2003–2013). Source of data IMF (2013)

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As the world’s second largest economy, China’s average annual GDP growth rate has been over 10 % between 1979 and 2010 with the highest real GDP growth reaching a historical 14.2 % in 2007 (Morrison 2013; Statistia 2013). China has been contributing to the world economy significantly with its GDP (PPP dollars) being 8.5 % in 2013 and projected to jump to 19 % in 2018 (Statistia 2013). Within the next decade, China may overtake the USA to become the largest global economy. However, this economic expansion has been accompanied by an enormous increase in the country’s ecological footprint—from less than 1 global hectares (gha) per person in 1961 to 2.1 gha in 2008, significantly higher than the available per capita biocapacity of 1.8 gha (Gaodi et al. 2012). Additionally Gaodi et al. (2012) report that the populations of more than ten flagship and keystone animal species have undergone a marked decline in China. This was particularly severe before the 1990s. Since 2003 the most recent dominant driver of China’s ecological footprint, and particularly its carbon component, has been increasing individual consumption (Gaodi et al. 2012). As a result, since 2008 the country has been singled out as the highest greenhouse gas emitter in the world. Furthermore, the 2012 environmental performance index by Yale University ranks China 116th out of 132 countries. These standings are likely to have been unimaginable for China’s ancestors.

Miraculous economic expansion in China for the last three decades has been associated with the degradation of its natural resources (e.g. serious water, land and air pollution); both of which are due to the country’s increasing industrialization and urbanization. For example, some deforestation and improper land use practices have become major problems in China (UNEP 2002). The current urban air pollution and city smog have been attracting both domestic and international attention (Xinhuanet 2014). In addition, green algae pollution in major rivers of China is a frequent occurrence due to mismanagement of water (People’s Daily Online 2011; UNEP 2007). There is also evidence that arable land in China is shrinking due to industrialization and urbanization (China Daily 2011).

Another consequence of a rapidly growing economy is the rapid growth in car ownership. For example, according to car sales in 2009 China has already overtaken the USA and by 2010, it had almost double the number of cars sold in USA (China Daily 2011). Air and water pollution has resulted in problems affecting the whole country. Water shortage is already a big problem in China. For example, the country’s per capita water resources availability will drop significantly by 2030 when China’s population is expected to reach 1.6 billion with a water-scarcity limit at 1700 m3 (Wan and Zhou 2009).

As the world’s fastest growing developing country, China has attracted global attention for the extensive pressure from its increasing population, consumption of limited resources as well as its role in deteriorating its ecological environment . China’s resource, energy and environmental concerns have become a serious constraint for its economic development, social advancement and ecological protection. To sustain development into the future, China must improve its environmental performance and restore the health of the natural environment. This can be achieved through investing in environmental management, restructuring the economy and making the shift to green technologies. The Chinese government has concentrated on economic growth without paying enough attention to environmental deterioration. The issues are particularly aggravated by China’s quickly expanding urbanization. Due to these issues, there is concern regarding whether or not China can maintain quality economic growth while satisfactorily preserving its water and other limited natural resources. Solving China’s environmental problems, such as carbon emissions, land erosion and degradation, air and water pollution, will add more pressure on the country’s population. In order to be able to successfully sustain its growth, China should establish a more effective system and strategy of resources development and the government should strengthen the supervision of resources management and protection.

The teachings of Confucius can be applied in this endeavour. For example, in regard to ecological awareness and environmental protection, Confucius advocated the unity of humankind with nature, for understanding and respecting nature. Confucius believed that a superior person admires mostly the Mandate of Heaven taking the suggestions of great predecessors and listening to what the sagas advice (Lau 1979, 16.8). Furthermore, Confucius valued and treasured mountain and water resources, and he believed that clever people aspiring to be intelligent and honest must love such resources. Through doing so, they can be happy and live long lives (Lau 1979, 6.23). Confucius believed a superior person should not ask too much from life and there is no need to eat full and to live in a comfortable house (Lau 1979, 1.14; Ware 1955).

As part of educating to protect the natural environment , Confucious himself also set a good example for other people. He was known to eat a meal normally consisting of rice, vegetables, meat and a drink, without the meat and drink only water. Also, he was happy to bend his arm as a pillow (Lau 1979, 7.16). In order to maintain ecological balance and environmental protection, Confucius suggested that a hook should be used for fishing instead of a net and that a nest of sleeping birds should not be shot at with an arrow. This demonstrates his adoration, passion and respect for wildlife (Ware 1955). Thus, the knowledge of ancestors can be seen as a useful source when developing guiding principles for the management of the natural resources required for economic growth.

How Can We Draw on the Wisdom of Confucius and Lao Tzu in Our Contemporary Challenges Regarding Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability ?

According to Confucius, one should not only love his or her parents, but also spread this love to nature. Furthermore, he also advised that one should control personal selfish desires and should not sacrifice the environment for achieving economic needs. Nowadays’ people should be more philosophical in their treatment of natural resources and seek to adhere to a more harmonious relationship between human and nature. Confucius, Lao Tzu and other Chinese philosophers and ideologists treated people as equals to nature.

The Confucian thoughts of kindness and responsibility can thus be seen to be based on the notion that humans should see themselves as equal to other natural lives and resources. This means that people should not try to conquer other living entities but should instead protect them. Therefore, people should not try to overcome nature, but rather they should love it as much as they love their parents and relatives including humans and other creatures and resources.

Lao Tzu suggested in the Tao Bible (Daodejing.org 2013) that everything on earth is produced by Dao, the natural rules, and he believed that Dao produces one; one produces two; and two produces three. Therefore, humans have the responsibility to take good care of the other creatures and resources of nature. Protecting and caring for nature are thus viewed as the best of human moral expressions. According to Lao Tzu in Tao Bible (Daodejing.org 2013), Dao, Heaven, Earth and Human are the four biggest things in the universe and he believed that humans depend on the Earth to live, the Earth depends on Heaven, Heaven follows Dao, and Dao eventually follows the principles of nature. This means that humans are the children of nature who have to respect Heaven and Earth. Their actions or behaviours need to follow the natural rules (Dao). Humans are allowed to improve the natural conditions because they are not passive; however, they have to act under humane and righteous motives (Pan 2013).

In general, Confucius advocated that people should treat nature nicely and should exercise self-control in relation to their desires, by applying appropriate and environmentally friendly behaviours. According to Confucius, when dealing with the natural environment and its resources, if righteousness and benefit conflict each other, the former should be treated as the greater imperative. When we are not able to achieve both, Confucius advised that people should forgo benefit and follow the right rules (Dao) of the earth. People should follow this notion of treating the natural environment and exploiting their needed life materials under the condition of not damaging the ecology. The benefits are obvious for all involved. People should follow and respect the natural principles of the environment and balance the economic and personal choices in order to achieve any material needs in the best way. According to Confucius, people should be able to satisfy themselves with enough resources if they treat nature well and follow wisely the natural rules (Pan 2013).

Conclusion

The environmental damage caused by China ’s pursuit of unsustainable GDP growth is becoming more serious, and the country needs to be prepared to face these difficulties. In particular, there is need for the government to seek a balanced developmental strategy model to achieve this. China’s environmental pollution and deterioration may challenge and delay future economic growth. Immediate actions are thus needed to adjust the current growth pattern. This includes achieving the goal of building a harmonious society, outlined by the government, including reducing corruption and enhancing environmental protection laws, regulations and education (Morrison 2013). Much of Confucianism and Taoism can be seen as being important in informing how to achieve these.

The ideas of Confucius , Lao Tzu and the other ancient philosophers can be used to direct and empower people of this day and age to deal with  the environmental crisis, while still gaining access to needed resources. Confucius believed that the Earth was big enough to secure life with the condition that humans must treat nature with care, following the natural rules (Pan 2013). China, as the largest developing country, can set a good example by demonstrating that it is actively working to tackle climate change, restore and maintain the health of the natural environment. There is a lot of useful wisdom regarding sustainability that can be derived from ancient Chinese ideologies such as Confucianism and Taoism.

Indeed, it is the case that Confucianism has already been accepted not only in China but across the world (Berthrong and Berthrong 2000; Hsü 2005). People need to remember to look back more often to seek the wisdom from their ancestors when developing economic and environmental policy. They need to pay more attention to the finite nature of many key resources and the planet itself. The sense of sustainability is not a new concept for China. Instead, the root of the sustainability concept was planted more than five thousand years ago. The nation’s ancestors set a good example in respecting and taking care of nature, which has sustained human life for many generations. The thoughts of Confucius and other Chinese ancient philosophers informed today’s basic sustainability concept, of keeping the balance between economic development and environmental protection to achieve harmony.