Abstract
This paper proposes an interpretation of Sanches’ scepticism based on a study of the full range of his writings, both philosophical and medical. Sanches’ criticisms of traditional idea of scientia indicate a closeness to the themes of Academic scepticism, with particular interest in the Renaissance Academic tradition, but Academic scepticism and Ciceronian criticism do not represent the aim of his philosophical project. Rather, they complement proposals for a new idea of empirical and conjectural knowledge, a new way of deploying reason and experience to attain a provisional rather than an absolute knowledge, a kind of “conjectural empiricism”. Even if his initial project to publish other philosophical texts after the Quod Nihil Scitur was abandoned and his philosophic-epistemological reflections on the status of this new empiricism remained at the stage of initial drafts. Sanches’ proposal of an empirical and conjectural knowing is based not on scepticism as negative dogmatism but on a denial of the practicability of certain and absolute knowledge (perfecta cognitio) in both philosophy and medicine. This denial complements the need to recalibrate and rethink ways of knowing in order to establish some points of support by which a new kind of knowledge – a conjectural empiricism – can profitably be achieved.
In memory of Ettore Lojacono.
In this paper I quote the Latin text of Quod nihil scitur (That Nothing is Known), Tractatus Philosophici (Philosophical Treaties) and Excerpta quaedam ex Opera medica (Abstracts from Medical Works) from F. Sanches, Tutte le opere filosofiche. Testo latino a fronte, eds. by C. Buccolini and E. Lojacono, Milan, Bompiani, and f. Francisco Sanches, Opera philosophica, edition and introduction by J. De Carvalho, Coimbra, 1955 (C); for an English translation I quote from F. Sanches, That Nothing is Known, with introduction, notes, and bibliography by E. Limbrick, Latin text established, annotated and translated by D. F. S. Thomson, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1988 (LT). For the Opera medica, (OM) I quote from original edition (Sanches, 1636). List of abbreviations: QNS = Quod nihil scitur; LBV = De longitudine et brevitate vitae, liber; PhC = In libro Aristotelis Physiognomicon commentarius; DS = De divinatione per somnum, ad Aristotelem; CE = Ad C. Clavium epistola; EOM = Excerpta quaedam ex “Opera medica”; OM = Opera medica.
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Notes
- 1.
- 2.
Caluori 2007, p. 45: “Sanchez was not an Academic sceptic. […] Sanchez followed Pyrrhonian scepticism (whether he was familiar with the writings of its most prominent exponent or not).”
- 3.
Schmitt 1972, pp. 7–8
- 4.
On the role of pithanon and of technical conjecture in Galen see: Chiaradonna 2014 and 2008. On artificiosa coniectura see, Chiaradonna cit., Fortuna 2001; Maclean 2001, Siraisi quoted above. On Galen and medical scepticism see the classic article of Viano 1981; for Galen and Early Modern Scepticism, Maclean 2006.
- 5.
For Cicero’s academic scepticism see Lévy 1992.
- 6.
See my commentary and notes in BL, pp. 224–357; 681–704.
- 7.
Sanches in the letter mentions problems included in the second edition of the commentary on Euclid’s Elements (1589); see Buccolini 2011, LXXXIV.
- 8.
OM, 686: “Nos vero contra, tritum quidem et vulgare praemittentes, authorisque sensum breviter exponentes, eum, et quae post eum ab aliis dicta sunt omnia deinceps examinabimus, sententiamque nostram libere in medium proferemus, liberumque unicuique iudicium permittemus.”
- 9.
“Cum autem proprium sit Academiae iudicium suum nullum interponere, ea probare quae veri simillima videantur, conferre causas et quid in quamque sententiam dici possit expromere, nulla adhibita auctoritate iudicium audentium relinquere integrum ac liberum, tenebimus hanc consuetudinem a Socrate traditam eaque inter nos utemur.” Cicero 1923.
- 10.
DS, BL, 228; C, 92. “Nos autem quae vera videbuntur, nulla aut illius (= Aristotelis), aut alterius cuiusque habita ratione, docebimus. Et […] commodumque e disquisitionibus nostris captantes (quod Socrati placebat) quid credendum, quidque fugiendum circa propositam quaestionem, tandem ostendemus.”
- 11.
DS, BL, 356; C. 122: “Tu, amice lector, quod magis placuerit, elige. Nec enim nos tibi necessitatem imponimus, ut magis hanc, quam illam sequaris sententiam. Diximus solum quod tum ratione, cum experimento hactenus assequi potuimus: tu vero si quid certius habes, id sequere.”
- 12.
DS, BL, 256, C. 98
- 13.
DS, BL, 258; C. 99.
- 14.
DS, BL, 260; C. 99.
- 15.
DS, BL, 280; C. 104.
- 16.
DS, BL, 282; C. 104.
- 17.
For the relations between scepticism and empiricism in Early Modern thought see the classic study by T. Gregory 1961.
- 18.
Francisco Sanches had some occasional assignments as a Lecturer in surgery at the Hotel Dieu hospital in Toulouse from 1582; then he taught philosophy at the Faculty of Arts of the University of Toulouse for about 25 years; in 1612 he obtained the second chair of Hygiene and Therapy in the Faculty of Medicine. Of all these years of teaching as a philosopher there remain only a few treatises published in the posthumous edition by his disciple R. Delasse, Opera Medica. His iuncti sunt tractatus quidam philosophici not insubtiles; Toulouse, 1636 (OM).
- 19.
OM, 169.
- 20.
OM contents of the first tome; original works and commentaries: De morbis internis libri tres (1–226); De febribus et earum symptomatibus libri duo (227–280); De venenatis omnibus cum signis et remediis (281–304); De purgatione, liber singularis (305–328); De phlebotomia liber (329–358); De locis in homine liber (359–362); Observationes in praxi liber (363–380); De formulis praescribendis medicamenta ad Tyrones Medicos (381–416); Pharmacopoeiae, libri tres (417–484); De theriaca liber (485–514); Examina opiatorum, syroporum, pilularum et electuariorum solidorum, libri quatuor (515–586); In librum Galeni de pulsibus, ad Tyrones commentarii (587–606); In eiusdem libros tres De crisibus commentarii (607–684); In eiusdem librum De differentiis morborum, commentarii (685–715); In eiusdem librum De causis morborum (716–740); In eiusdem De differrentiis symptomatum, libri tres, commentarii (741–755); In eiusdem De causis symptomatum libri tres (755–808); Censura in Hippocratis Opera omnia (809–826); Summa anatomica, libri quatuor (827–943).
- 21.
DS, BL, 228; C, 91; LBV, BL, 396; C. 63;
- 22.
OM, 686: “sententiamque nostram liberè in medium proferemus.”
- 23.
“Haec cum ita ab Aristotele et eius sequacibus statuantur (nos enim quid de his sentiamus, in Rerum examine diximus)”, LBV, BL, 362; C, 55; “Quia in tractatu de anima, quaestionem hanc fuse exagitavimus, supersedendum nunc nobis erit” LBV, BL, 396; C. 63.
- 24.
See below.
- 25.
QNS, BL, 82, 112,142, 146, 156, 168, LBV, BL, 362, 368, 380, 400, 408, 410, 412; C. 55, 56, 59, 64, 66, 67.
- 26.
LBV,BL, 404–408, 622; C. 65–66, 158);OM, 170–172, 725–728, 804–805.
- 27.
OM, 687.
- 28.
LBV,BL, 412; C. 67; EOM, BL, 616, 620, 622; C. 157, 158, 159); OM, 169–172.
- 29.
OM, 652.
- 30.
OM, 687–690, 768–769.
- 31.
OM, 747–748.
- 32.
LBV, BL, 368–372; C. 56–57.
- 33.
QNS, BL, 116; LT, 233.
- 34.
OM, 767–768: “[…] bene curaturo medico, qui cum artifex sit sensualis, ut aiunt, non scrupolose nimis, et logice res contemplatur, alias nullam concederet exactam sanitatem, neque neutram constitutionem, neque laudatum sanguine, nec inculpatum medicamentum, sed scepticus factus, nunquam alicui arte sua prodesse conaretur.”
- 35.
“Ignarus”, ignorant is the term by which Sanches indicates in his works the protagonist of his philosophy, who starts from the awareness that nothing is known. See LBV, BL, 403–409; C. 65–66.
- 36.
LBV, BL, 409; C. 66. “Nil scimus. Dicamus ergo. Primarum rerum, principiorum, aut elementorum causas reddere, nostri non est captus: secundarum vero, utcumque. Id in singulis quaestionibus experiri possumus: et ego obiter in aliquibus indigitabo.”
- 37.
OM, 658. “non tantam esse certitudinem cognitionis […] quantam ipse in nobis inculcat. […] Nam ex hoc illius (=Galeni) concesso ego consequentiam ad alia traho, quamvisque antiquissimum praeceptrorem ubique suspiciam, tamen non possum non semper ignorantiam publicare meam, cumque eius bona venia de multis dubitare, quae illi apertissima erant […] cuius contrarium ego per multos annos ex relatione omnium fere aegrorum collegi.”
- 38.
DS, BL, 352–354; C, 121–122.
- 39.
“Quid ergo, visne imperatoris modo quaecunque dixeris rata esse sine ratione et probatione, quod alienum iudicant omnes? Nec id volo: sed ostendam postea quomodo ratione, probationeque alia meliori, quam hac sillogistica uti possis.” QNS, BL, 196; LT, 275–276.
- 40.
“In libro, Modi sciendi, docebitur quomodo quid discutiatur sine sillogistica doctrina.” QNS, BL, 196.
- 41.
QNS, BL, 50, 126, 158; LBV, BL, 396; C, 63.
- 42.
LBV, BL, 362; C, 54–55.
- 43.
PhC, BL, 474; C. 83.
- 44.
Paganini 2007.
- 45.
See Paganini 2007, pp. 74–77.
- 46.
See the ideas of perfect man and perfect temperament in QNS BL, 161–173, 163, 171, 173; OM 652–653, 589, 690, 768.
- 47.
OM, 592: “Galenum nobis ideam potius moderati pulsum describere velle quam rem naturalem et possibilem […]. Et si non Galenum ipsum assequi possimus hac in arte […] eum imitantes, multorum bene valentium pulsus considerabimus […] ut ex omnis ideam quondam moderati pulsus nobis constituamus, in memoriaque conservemus, ad quem reliquos conferamus. Maximum ergo hanc in re, ut et in tota arte medica, pondus habet exercitatio assidua.”
- 48.
See, for example, OM, 72, 223, 311, 314, 335, 382, 687, 724, 747.
- 49.
For empiricism, conjecture, hypothetical logic and mathematical probability see the classic study of L. Shapiro 1983.
- 50.
“Decreveramus iamdiu potius silere, et mutam agere nobiscum Philosophiam, quam cum tot fatuis publice insanire, insaniamque nostram publicis tum concertationibus, cum praelectionibus, tum denique operibus manifestam omnibus facere, et quod peius fortasse sit, in eandem alios, si ita contingant, trahere.” DS, BL, 226; C. 91.
- 51.
DS, BL, 226; C, 91: “Obsequium amicos, veritas odium parit.” (Terent., Andr., 1, 1, 41)
- 52.
“Quare coguntur saepe sapientes, qui perpauci sunt, tacere, aut cum insipientibus, qui infiniti sunt, idem non sentire (id enim nulla vis cogere potest) sed saltem consentire, concedere, et probare.” DS, BL, 228; C. 91.
- 53.
OM, 717.
- 54.
“Id cum ego saepius mente voluo, quod reliquum est vitae, in otio et contemplatione transigere potius in animum induxi meum, quam contendendo, nugando, rixando, vitam absumere, infoelicemque reddere. Sed ab hoc tam honesto proposito me detrudit officii et muneris mei ratio.” DS, BL, 228; C, 91.
- 55.
DS, BL 228; C, 92.
- 56.
QNS, BL, 24; LT, 178.
- 57.
QNS, BL, 54; LT, 195
- 58.
QNS, BL, 50.
- 59.
QNS, BL, 62; LT, 200.
- 60.
Talking about the possibility of perfecta rei cognitio Sanches introduce the question of the number of things that exist in the world, even they are of infinite of finite number. He opposes to the Aristotelian negation of their finitude, the conjecture of their infinity “negabis infinitas. At non probabis finitas.” “nec tu finem omnium rerum vidisti, finitas tamen asseris (assert): nec ego earum infinitatem vidi, infinitas tamen esse coniecto.” QNS, BL 71; LT, 204.
- 61.
Goclenius 1615, s.v.
- 62.
DS, BL, 258–260: “[Cardanus] definit diuinationem veram coniecturam de futuris non certa ratione habitam. Quae definitio non conuenit omni diuinationi […] coniectura autem omnis, dubia est. […] coniectura autem per ratiocinationem et discursum tota et omnis habetur. Inde coniector, dicitur somniorum interpres, qui discursu, somnii significationem adipiscitur. […] Iam ostendimus male eum definisse diuinationem, coniecturam.” See pp. 262 ff; 236;
- 63.
DS, BL, 350; C, 120.
- 64.
DS, BL, 352; C, 121.
- 65.
“Iuxta haec de corporis praesenti dispositione coniectare licet, et de futuris praedicere, et ei prospicere iuxta medicinae regulas.” DS, BL, 354; C. 121.
- 66.
“Quae sermone comprehendi neque scientia potest; prudens tamen doctus, sagax, ingeniosusque medicus artificiosa coniectura potest.” OM, 77.
- 67.
OM, 311.
- 68.
OM, 340
- 69.
OM, 639.
- 70.
OM, 223.
- 71.
OM, 653.
- 72.
OM, ibid.
- 73.
On Argenterio, see Siraisi 2001, 328–355; on medicine as “conjectural art” see pp. 346–348.
- 74.
See, for example, OM, 692–698; 718–719; 747–749;756, 767–770; 780.
- 75.
OM, for defense or praise of Galen see: 308, 331, 381, 651–652, 674, 698, 719sgg., 749.
- 76.
OM, 698.
- 77.
OM, 687.
- 78.
OM, 687.
- 79.
OM, 747.
- 80.
OM, 687. “Magna ergo est de essentia sanitatis et morbi inter authores controversia, multique integros de hac re libros conscripsere; et frustra sane. Quid enim hoc ad curationem morborum? Ignoretur essentia morbi in genere; non tamen propterea minus aegrotum sanabimus.”
- 81.
OM, 687. “Morbo enim nunquam opponimus contrarium opponeremus enim sanitatem: sed eius causae immediatae contrarii obiicimus, ut calori frigus etc. neque adversus morbum directe pugnamus; sed adversus eius causam. Quam cum ille tanquam umbra corpus sequatur, ea sublata, statim evanescit.”
- 82.
OM, 687. “Hanc ergo tollere conandum, etiam nihil intelligentes de essentia morbi: quod fieri potest, et faciunt Empirici, qui sectam rationalem et methodicam deseruerunt taedio quaestiuncularum: sic enim et canis vulnus sibi inflictum lingua lingit, nihil de vulneris cogitans essentia, et quilibet è plebe ulcus experti sibi remediis sanat, non sollicitus, ne per somnium, de eius definitione.”
- 83.
OM, 2, De morbis internis, Prooemium. “Et quia vita brevis est, ars vero longa nimis, ne multos in hoc opera insumamus annos legendo, placet quidem quaestiones omnes, quae ad cognitionem, essentiam aut deffinitionem, prognosimque morborum spectant dimettere, solumque in curatione laborare, quantum longa experientia hactenus nobis compertum est.”
- 84.
OM, 165–166.
- 85.
OM, 169. “Ecce excitamus quaestiones multas ut excitemus ingenia vestra. Hoc enim est vere philosophari: non autem bidentum more praeeuntes sine iudicio sequi, et aliorum paginas in suas chartas transvasare.”
- 86.
OM, 769.
- 87.
OM, 170.
- 88.
OM, 590.
- 89.
OM, 167.
- 90.
OM, 215.
- 91.
“Cùm vero tota controversia sit de facto, non de iure, rationibus non pugnandum esset sed experimento. Quod cum non certum habeamus, ad rationes necessario confugimus: in quibus tamen non est cavillandi finis.” OM, 589.
- 92.
See Pomata 2011b, in part. for observation in QNS n. 8, p. 70.
- 93.
Shapiro 2003, chap. I
- 94.
QNS, BL, 216; LT, 287: “Illaque etiam plura in dubium veniret an optime expertus esset. Si enim consulat alios de iisdem rebus authores disserentes, aliud atque aliud expertos inueniet: quodque hic se expertum dicit, alter impossibile esse contendit, illumque in experientia deceptum esse pluribus rationibus hinc inde petitis ostendere conatur.”
- 95.
QNS, BL, 216; LT, 287.
- 96.
OM, 307.
- 97.
OM, 335.
- 98.
OM, 653.
- 99.
OM, 652.
- 100.
OM, 308.
- 101.
OM, 314.
- 102.
OM, 311: “cum prudentia et solerti coniectura (quae legittima est optimi medici regula).”
- 103.
OM, 674.
- 104.
Pomata 2011a, pp. 47, 49.
- 105.
2003.
- 106.
2001, 2005.
- 107.
2005, 2011a.
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Buccolini, C. (2017). The Philosophy of Francisco Sanches: Academic Scepticism and Conjectural Empiricism. In: Smith, P., Charles, S. (eds) Academic Scepticism in the Development of Early Modern Philosophy. International Archives of the History of Ideas Archives internationales d'histoire des idées, vol 221. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-45424-5_1
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