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Introduction

This chapter explores the complementary role of positive youth development (PYD) in the context of religious education (RE) taught in Catholic secondary schools in Western Australia. The term ‘religious education’ is used here to refer to the whole school religious education curriculum that includes the teaching of religion as a classroom activity and catechetical activities that occur outside of the classroom. In Western Australian Catholic secondary schools, religion classes are compulsory for all students, and participation in catechetical activities is expected to the extent to which the students are affiliated with the Catholic tradition. The chapter will firstly outline the characteristics of positive youth development and the contribution PYD can make towards young people’s spiritual well-being and religious commitment. Next, the chapter will discuss Catholic secondary school examples of how RE can promote PYD traits as part of a whole school programme that includes classroom learning, retreats, liturgy, prayer and student ministry. Lastly, the chapter will conclude how a focus on PYD may enhance the learning outcomes of religious education in Catholic schools.

What Is Positive Youth Development?

A positive youth development approach to young people’s well-being is focused on developing their inner strengths or traits to deal with the challenges of life. The aim of PYD is to promote a thriving personality buoyed by positive environments experienced through the family, school or local community (Spiewak & Sherrod, 2012, p. 167). Essentially, PYD is like a ‘vitamin C’ tablet to counter the negative influences of unhealthy risk factors such as alienation, depression or disenchantment. There are five traits that PYD seeks to develop within young people: competence, confidence, connection, character and caring (Warren, Lerner & Phelps, 2012, p. 5). Competence refers to ways young people view their personal, social and academic capabilities. Confidence means young people can see themselves as possessing self-worth or self-efficacy. Connection refers to the network of positive relationships young people can have in their lives. Character relates to the sense of integrity and uprightness young people can develop, and caring means the capacity for young people to be empathetic towards others and their environment (Bowers et al., 2010, Table 1). For young people to thrive, these traits need to be developed in an integrated fashion and especially by creating an outward looking world view through engagement with their communities.

The focus or ‘hub’ of this integration is on building empathetic character (Lovat & Toomey, 2007), or what is called ‘great love-compassion’ [GLC] (Warren, 2012, p. 94). GLC is about the universal desire of people ‘… to have freedom and joy, and the complementary wish born of clear perception … to be relieved of their pain and suffering’ (p. 94). It is what drives people to action, to serve and create a better world for themselves, their loved ones and the local and global community. For many young people during their teenage years (Good & Willoughby, 2008), they are awakened to this desire as they become more conscious of the potentiality of what they can commit to and be capable of doing. They are able to move away from excessive self-absorption (Hodder, 2007) to a greater concern for the welfare for others. They can become happier and healthier or, as stated in the Melbourne Declaration on the Educational Goals of Young Australians, ‘…become successful learners, confident and creative individuals, and active and informed citizens’ (Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs [MCEETYA], 2008, p. 7). In particular, a PYD approach can help young people:

  • have a sense of self-worth, self-awareness and personal identity that enables them to manage their emotional, mental, spiritual and physical wellbeing;

  • have a sense of optimism about their lives and the future;

  • develop personal values and attributes such as honesty, resilience, empathy and respect for others;

  • have the knowledge, skills, understanding and values to establish and maintain healthy, satisfying lives;

  • relate well to others and form and maintain healthy relationships; and,

  • [become] well prepared for their potential life roles as family, community and workforce members. (MCEETYA, 2008, p. 9)

Links Between Positive Youth Development, Spirituality and Religiosity

Young people today in Australian secondary schools, known as Generation Z, face extraordinary challenges psychosocially and technologically. McCrindle Research (2013) suggests they are ‘the most materially endowed, technological[ly] saturated, formally educated generation [the] world has ever seen’ (2. Generationally defined, para. 1). However, even with so much, they continue to long for acceptance, confidence, identity, independence, love, responsibility and a positive world view (Raising Children Network, Australia, 2013).

There is evidence to suggest that when young people have a strong sense of their spirituality such as by making commitments beyond self-interest (Lerner, Roeser & Phelps, 2008, p. 3) and/or demonstrate an active religiosity such as by regular Church attendance (Good & Willoughby, 2006, p. 41), then they achieve better at school, are less likely to exhibit risky behaviours, are able to become more actively involved in their communities, tend to volunteer more and become more engaged in the social and political fabric of society (Checkoway & Gutiérrez, 2011, p. 2; Good & Willoughby, 2006; Putnam & Campbell, 2010). Such traits would sit well with a philosophy of Catholic education that seeks to promote the whole person from within (Congregation for Catholic Education, 1977, para. 29) towards a ‘new life which has been given them in baptism’ (Congregation for the Clergy, 1997, para. 259). Catholic schools can do much to promote PYD through religious education where expressions of spirituality and religiosity are important aspects to the curriculum of these schools.

Positive youth development is possible when young people can access outlets for developing its five traits. Strongest among these outlets are opportunities for spiritual and religious practices (Spiewak & Sherrod, 2012, p. 168). Social and civic engagement, socio-emotional management, delayed gratification, discipline, gratitude, healthy lifestyle practices, quiet time, mindfulness and acts of generosity and service, to name a few, could form the basis of spiritual practices for young people to experience. Furthermore, young people in Catholic schools could be introduced to religious practices such as Bible reading, meditation, prayer, contemplation, fasting and acts of mercy and social justice, liturgy and sacramental preparation for PYD. Such practices would enhance the personal and social capability of young people (Australian Curriculum Assessment & Reporting Authority, 2012) at a time in their lives when they are open to change or ‘plasticity’ (Bowers et al., 2010, p. 721) and when religious commitment may be seriously considered (Good & Willoughby, 2008, p. 32).

Positive Youth Development and Religious Education

Programmes that promote positive youth development for great love-compassion work from Neo-platonic dimensions of the human person: the head, heart and hands (Spiewak & Sherrod, 2008, p. 329). The ‘head’ represents the cognitive domain, the ‘heart’ the affective domain and the ‘hands’ behavioural domain (Spiewak & Sherrod, 2012, p. 169). Spiewak and Sherrod (2008) proposed that these three dimensions apply similarly to spirituality and religiosity. If religious education is an education that includes expressions of spirituality and religiosity, the ‘head’ could refer to the teaching of religion and religious awareness in the classroom; the ‘heart’ could refer to the school-based experiences that raise religious sensitivity (new evangelisation) or catechesis; and the ‘hands’ could refer to the service and leadership opportunities available to students. To distil the three dimensions does not suggest they operate in isolation from one another. On the contrary, they interact with each other with a focus on great love-compassion. The foundation of this great love-compassion would focus on Jesus Christ, as the ‘way, truth and life’ (Jn 14:6). Just as ‘PYD relies heavily on sparking adolescent initiative or motivating youth to engage in healthier activities or lifestyle’ (Spiewak & Sherrod, 2012, p. 170), so too can religious education potentially aim to do the same. The hallmarks of this religious education would be one that aims to be compelling (head), inspiring (heart) and engaging (hands) for young people.

PYD and the Teaching of Religion and Religious Awareness in the Classroom (Head)

The head dimension of religious education seeks to develop competence in knowledge and understanding of religion and a critical appreciation of the role of religion in the lives of people and society. PYD studies in religious or spiritual engagement usually include a survey based on a scale of belief to be used for the ‘head’ dimension (Spiewak & Sherrod, 2012, p. 173). Good and Willoughby (2008) point out that during adolescence, young people have an increased capacity for abstract thought, deductive reasoning and metacognition (p. 33). Given challenging moral and social issues or ‘big’ questions on life (Crawford & Rossiter, 2006, pp. 394–396; Erricker, 2010; Holohan, 1999, pp. 28–29; Rossiter, 2010), young people are capable of critically evaluating their own and other’s ideas about themselves, the world around them and about God. They are able to intellectually engage into the human quest for meaning and purpose and critically evaluate how people and teaching of the Catholic faith tradition address this human quest. Rymarz and Graham (2006) observed that young people had a ‘lack of sophisticated knowledge of a Christian overview of the world’ (p. 87). To counter such a trend, Rymarz (2012) suggested that young people need an approach in teaching religion of ‘knowledge to be discovered’ (p. 173) in the search for truth on which to build a ‘cognitive religious framework’ or ‘critical religious literacy’ of a Catholic/Christian world view. This religious literacy would be more than knowledge of key terms, people or practices; it would include a critical understanding of religious concepts, issues and culture. One attempt to develop a more critically inquiring approach to teaching religion in the classroom is a senior secondary course recently developed in Western Australia (WA).

In 2009, a new course of study called ‘Religion and Life’ (RAL) was introduced by the Curriculum Council of Western Australia (renamed now as the School Curriculum and Standards Authority), the state government authority charged for overseeing the senior school curriculum in WA. RAL was part of a suite of courses that were introduced for senior secondary students that included the opportunity to study the course for university entrance (School Curriculum and Standards Authority, 2013). The first cohort of predominately Catholic students completed the course in 2010. Berlach and Hackett (2012) invited teachers and students of this cohort to evaluate whether the outcomes of RAL had been achieved. The three outcomes related, firstly, to the interplay between religion and life; secondly, to the search for meaning and purpose; and thirdly, to the role of religion in society. These outcomes were focused around the rationale that the Religion and Life course was about the ‘interplay between religion, individuals and society’ (p. 9). Students were required to explore how religion interacts with and influences people, not only personally but also culturally and contemporaneously. To do so, students learnt to use inquiry and research skills to critically interpret the source materials available to them. The responses from teachers and students were very positive; in particular, the students surveyed indicated that they ‘… enjoyed exploring the issues’ (p. 11) with the following responses: 61 % for outcome one, 77 % for outcome two and 70 % for outcome three, respectively. Albeit there were ‘teething problems’ with a lack of resources and professional development, as well as adjusting to changes in assessment. Overall, both teachers and students felt that the course was worthwhile. Berlach and Hackett noted that, ‘Students …, although not shying away from criticism, found the course to be compelling… it appears that the RAL course proved to be both challenging and thought-provoking.’ (p. 14). From a PYD perspective, the course seems to have assisted many students develop academic competence and confidence. However, while the ‘head’ may have been well fed, 53 % of students reported that the course was unlikely to have ‘…contributed to [their] personal growth and development in the area of religion’ (p. 14). Perhaps, this response is an indicator that other dimensions of the ‘heart’ and the ‘hands’ need to come into play to complement the ‘head’ for positive development to occur (Spiewak & Sherrod, 2012, p. 175). The role of the heart and the hands in religious education will now be discussed in the next section.

PYD and the Experience of Catechetical Activities (Heart and Hands)

To develop young people positively, traits like connection, character and caring are emphasised by providing opportunities for young people to perform and reflect critically upon acts of generosity or service (Lovat, Toomey, Clement, Crotty & Nielsen, 2009). In Catholic secondary schools in WA, these opportunities are part of schools’ evangelisation plans called ‘activities of catechesis’ which include liturgies, prayer time, retreats and Christian service learning (Catholic Education Commission of Western Australia [CECWA], 2008). There is ‘at least 60 mins per week of such experiences averaged over the particular year level’s academic year’ (CECWA, 2008) separate from the time allocation given to teaching religion in the classroom. As pointed out by Benedict XVI (2005), like the Church, the Catholic school in providing these activities has a ‘three-fold responsibility: of proclaiming the word of God (kerygma-martyria), celebrating the sacraments (leitourgia), and exercising the ministry of charity (diakonia). These duties presuppose each other and are inseparable’ (para. 25). Hackett and Lavery (2011) have reported on a small number of Catholic secondary schools in WA who have sought to promote these activities as ‘student ministry’ through active participation and servant leadership by students.

Student ministry is about personal, spiritual and religious formation of young people (‘heart’) through critical reflection of acts of service (‘hands’), often by taking leadership roles or through service-learning (Hackett & Lavery, 2011, p. 4). An important qualifier is that schools plan these acts systematically for evangelisation (Benedict XVI, 2005, para. 20) and that students performed them in a process akin to ‘an apprenticeship process of formation’ (Holohan, 1999, pp. 23, 65). Students are encouraged to take the initiative (Smith & Denton, 2005) where appropriate and safe to do so with the teaching staff adopting a ‘travelling companion’ stance (John Paul II, 1993). Importantly, the principal and the school leadership team are seen to actively support student actions (Hart, 1992). In two Catholic secondary schools, all students were required to do service from years seven to twelve. The hours of service consisted of during school hours and out-of-school hours. In the junior secondary years, the emphasis was on service at home or at school, while the senior years emphasised broader community actions such as charity drives or immersion experiences. A crucial feature to these actions was the critical reflection that accompanied them. Students were provided with the opportunity to journal their personal reflections of their experiences, to share their reactions and insights to these experiences in small and larger groups and to participate in formal and informal moments of prayer. For the heart and the hands dimensions to become influential in the lives of young people, then ‘…time devoted to God in prayer not only does not detract from effective and loving service to our neighbour but is in fact the inexhaustible source of that service’ (Benedict XVI, 2005, para. 36). How sustainable though this influence may have on students still remains promising but tentative (D’Agostino, 2010; Furco & Root, 2010). Conversion remains an aspiration rather than an outcome. Nonetheless, school leaders consistently observed profound moments happening for their students (and themselves) as a result of service learning. One school leader commented that sometimes the depth of insight does not happen at the time of the experience but may occur later, perhaps because of a growth in maturity (Hackett & Lavery, 2011, p. 58). As another school leader commented, the value of student ministry was ‘more than doing good…it was a way of doing good’ (p. 59). There seemed to be an interplay between the ‘heart’ and the ‘hands’ dimensions that later involved the crucial participation of the ‘head’ through critical reflection (Spiewak & Sherrod, 2012, p. 176). Students felt empowered to act, stirred by deep humane emotions and duty bound to make a difference. To support the students in their transcendence to a broader or Catholic/Christian world view, students were taught about the social teachings of the Church and invited to join a community of prayer.

At another Catholic secondary school in WA, Hine (2013) found that young people who were able to take an active leadership role in the school community reported they felt a sense of ‘obligation, duty, and service’ (p. 42). They felt a greater connection with their school community, saw themselves as developing leadership characteristics and were concerned about the circumstances of other students. One quality that Hine noted was the character-building characteristic of self-sacrifice (pp. 44–45) that volunteering and service bring with student leadership. Students in leadership had to weigh up their obligations at a time in their senior school years when study was a high priority. As found in Hackett and Lavery’s (2011) study, where students were exhorted to volunteer in service activities, young people learnt valuable lessons about coping with competing demands, developing a balance between self-interest and community mindedness. From a PYD perspective, Hine’s study showed that leadership and service opportunities reflect spiritual practices that build personal and social competencies, enhance self-esteem, build community relationships and develop a sense of empathy and compassion.

Integration of Head, Heart and Hands Dimensions in Religious Education

The whole school religious education curriculum has the potential to provide young people with a meaningful view of the world. Catholic schools, on behalf of the Church, have a responsibility to communicate ‘…to young people an appreciation for the positive value of life and of awakening in them a desire to spend their lives in the service of the Good’ (Benedict XVI, 2012, para. 1). For this to happen, the curriculum needs to make sense and relate to the ‘lifeworld’ of the students (D’Orsa & D’Orsa, 2012). The treatment of knowledge and understanding are not to be given ‘precast’ (Congregation for Catholic Education, 1977, para. 27) but ‘as something which is discovered’ (Rymarz, 2012, p. 173). There needs to be an integrated approach to the head, heart and hands dimensions of RE; what students may learn in religion in the classroom should be connected to the experiences and practices played out elsewhere such as through service-learning and prayer. That is not to say that there will not be challenges. The presupposition is that the culture in which young people are immersed is conducive to the RE practices described above in the three dimensions. Young people create their world view, be it Christian or not, through the filter of the culture they experience (D’Orsa & D’Orsa, pp. 76–77). Cultural experiences are formed by the relationships young people have with their family, the local community, the media, the society and the school. They search for consistency in these experiences across these social groups which provide answers to their concerns, that is, a ‘knowledge …created by consensus’ (Hughes, 2007 cited in D’Orsa & D’Orsa, p. 70). Lovat and Toomey (2007) also found that where students experienced the same values in the home as at school, then the quality of learning improved. The Congregation for Catholic Education (1977) affirmed that young people need to be immersed in ‘an atmosphere permeated with the Gospel spirit of freedom and love’ (para. 55), yet this permeation would be difficult to achieve if there is not ‘… constant reference to the Gospel and a frequent encounter with Christ’ (para. 55) among teachers, parents and other influential members of society. At the very least, there needs to be a consistency in message and example between parents, parishes and schools (Miller, 2005) for the dimensions of the head, heart and hands to have a chance to flourish.

A PYD approach has young people taking an active role in their development. They are challenged to ‘step up’ (Hackett & Lavery, 2011) for and on behalf of their communities. They need to learn to reject a life of superficiality and as Benedict XVI (2012) exhorted to young people:

make a commitment, to face hard work and sacrifice, to choose the paths that demand fidelity and constancy, humility and dedication. Be confident in your youth and its profound desires for happiness, truth, beauty and genuine love! Live fully this time in your life so rich and so full of enthusiasm. (para. 6)

A whole school RE curriculum framed around the dimensions of the head, heart and hands can provide the means for young people to live life to the full (Jn 10:10) by focusing on the life, teaching and relationships of Jesus Christ. Young people need to face and answer the question: ‘When did we see you, Lord?’ (Mt 25:37). Through deep learning of a Catholic/Christian world view, practising critical reflection and prayer and experiencing service and leadership, young people may be able to respond positively. A challenge for religious educators is to evaluate the extent to which religious education offered in Catholic secondary schools actually integrates the three dimensions of the head, heart and hands. Also, the application of PYD in a school context assists students to flourish and helps them find expression for great love-compassion in the Church.

Conclusion

This chapter set out to explore the role of positive youth development in religious education. PYD is recognised as a significant way to reduce negative risk factors and promote a positive and thriving mind-set by helping students to develop five traits: competence, confidence, connection, character and caring. Such traits are developed through young people contributing to their families, local communities and schools. There is the possibility of emphasising a PYD approach through the whole school religious education curriculum. The approach can be framed around three dimensions: the head, heart and hands. To illustrate these dimensions, examples were drawn from Catholic secondary schools in Western Australia that have introduced, firstly, a new university-entrance course called Religion and Life and, secondly, service and leadership though student ministry. As positive as these examples appear, they remain ‘works in progress’ and are dependent upon how well the three dimensions are integrated and the quality and consistency of culture in which students are immersed. The secondary school years are a particularly sensitive time for young people to develop their spiritual well-being and, perhaps, open the possibility of a mature level of religious commitment (Rymarz & Graham, 2006; Spiewak & Sherrod, 2008). Young people need authentic challenges in religious education to discover something about the real worth of who they are and who they can become: a person ‘…who talks consciously with God, [and] who is there for God to love’ (Congregation for Catholic Education, 1977, para. 55).