Keywords

6.1 Coastal Cities as Incubators of Decent Blue Green Jobs

Sustainability is “equity extended into the future”, a responsible resource-conscious journey for the well-being of all. Social justice, employment and participation are key sustainability dimensions. High unemployment, endemic violence and exclusion, and food and water shortages can seriously undermine the sustainability prospects of a city. The blue green economy has high potential for decent jobs, food security and public health. Three billion citizens rely on the ocean for their livelihoods (GOC 2014).

Responsible fair coastal cities must invest in fairness and the sustainable distribution of wealth, including from the exploitation of their marine assets, especially at times of protracted crisis. The blue economy has an important estimated potential to attract a more diverse workforce in coastal cities. The development of skills and activities, the integration into the labour and the housing market and the welcome of mobile offshore workers such as seafarers make the role of coastal cities crucial as central institutions organising the dialogue and engaging all stakeholders.

Fairness constitutes the ultimate ethos of the social architecture of sustainable coastal cities that strive to offer citizens a fulfilling life worth living. Skills taking care of the marine environment provide a valuable community service and can be one of the alternatives in addressing the risk of a jobless recovery. The weak global economic recovery has failed to lead to a substantial improvement in global labour markets, and the number of global unemployed citizens reached 200 million in 2013. The epicentre of the crisis has been the industrialised world, accounting for half of the total increase in unemployment, but, in a highly interconnected world, this has had significant spillovers into the labour markets of emerging economies. A quarter of the increase of four million in global unemployment in 2012 has been in advanced economies, while three quarters has been in other regions, with marked effects in East Asia, South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa (ILO 2014).

Unemployment is a major waste of resources and talent which undermines urban dynamism. The unemployment rate in the USA reached 5.8 % in 2014. In the European Union, the world region most affected by the crisis, the unemployment rate in EU28 rose to 10.0 % in November 2014. Among the Member States, the lowest unemployment rates were recorded in Austria (4.9 %) and Germany (5.0 %), and the highest in Greece (25.7 %) and Spain (23.9 %). The surge of citizen movements is indicative of the political repercussions which find their privileged spaces for protest in cities (Harvey 2012).

Youth unemployment is particularly alarming, as young citizens are usually the main victims of crises. In November 2014, more than five million citizens under 25 were unemployed in the EU28, with a youth unemployment rate of 21.9 %, compared with 23.2 % in November 2013. Structural trends underline the need for investment in human capital. A protracted recovery which does not generate employment has not only important economic and social costs but signals structural deficiencies in the labour market that weaken the seeds of growth. The concurrent rise in job vacancies and unemployment indicate labour market mismatches among required skills and education and training. Education and life-long training policies are essential to equip the unemployed with the skills required for promising sectors which contribute to sustainable development. Training portfolios related to the exploration and care of the ocean can initiate a new blue green employment dynamic (EC 2015).

There is no evidence that coastal cities are in better condition in terms of employment, but some coastal and maritime sectors have a great deal of potential. Fisheries still employ 4.4 % of the estimated total economically active people, of which 84 % are in Asia and 10 % in Africa. Women are estimated to account for more than 15 % of these. Employment in aquaculture seems to have much potential. Cities can create a wide array of direct and indirect jobs to stimulate, design, regulate, and support the marine and maritime economies. Developing synergies between aquaculture and other activities can, for example, require a range of skills. From the conception of ocean gardens to offshore renewable energy and sustainable tourism, the great diversity of coastal and maritime activities is promising. In the EU, the coastal and maritime tourism sector has been identified as an area with special potential to foster a smart, sustainable and inclusive Europe and create new employment in the EU regional sea basins.

A rising blue green economy could provide SMEs with the momentum needed after the crisis. The creation of clean SMEs in innovative maritime clusters is assessed to be a quality job generator. The results of a Survey by the Committee of the Regions on SME-friendly Regions and Cities of the European Union suggest that the financial and economic crisis has generally been seen by Local and Regional Authorities as having a negative impact on SMEs. The nature of the impact is perceived in very diverse forms but more painfully in regard to employment losses. A decrease in investment or liquidity, falling consumer demand and orders, and declining performance, such as a decrease in production, research and demonstration, were some of the main effects reported by cities and regions (CoR 2012).

Port cities also have to develop the necessary infrastructure and skills to receive the population of passengers and visitors they desire. The global economy also accounts for over one-and-a-quarter million seafarers, predominantly from OECD countries, Eastern Europe and Eastern and Southern Asia. Africa and Latin America are noticeably under-represented. Only 2 % of seafarers are women, mainly in the ferry and cruise ship sectors. Over the past decades, piracy and armed robbery have re-emerged as a serious risk to seafarers. Much attention has been focused on action against such attacks on shipping in waters off eastern Africa, and in the South China Sea, the location of over half the international incidents reported in 2013.

Coastal cities are gateways to regional and maritime tourism, which contributes significantly to direct and indirect employment. Globally, it is estimated that, in 2013, tourism provided 3.3 % of direct employment and 8.9 % when the multiplier effects are taken into account. The capacity in tourism infrastructures in most regions is concentrated in coastal areas. Various activities, such as yachting and cruising, are specific to coastal and maritime tourism. Demand for cruise tourism roughly doubled worldwide during the first decade of the century. The development of high-quality coastal and maritime tourism and jobs can help address diversification of supply, fluctuating demand and seasonality (EC 2014b).

Many green economy initiatives demonstrate their potential for job creation. A prime example is the US Better Buildings Initiative, ensuring that America invests in innovative clean energy technologies and doubles the share of electricity from clean energy sources by 2035. The initiative targets commercial and industrial buildings which have to become 20 % more energy efficient by 2020 and accelerates private sector investment in energy efficiency. The Political Economy Research Institute suggested that the entire Better Buildings Initiative could create up to 114,000 jobs in sectors as diverse as lighting, insulation, heating and cooling, information and access to financing.

Decent green jobs are already part of urban portfolios focused on post-carbon societies. New York’s Greener Greater Buildings Plan is expected to create some 17,800 green construction-related jobs by 2030. The Plan consists of four regulatory parts supported by extensive jobs training. It asks for large buildings to annually benchmark their energy performance, that a local energy code be adopted, that every 10 years these buildings conduct an energy audit and a retro-commissioning and that, by 2025, the lighting in the non-residential spaces be upgraded. The first benchmarking report on private buildings suggests that all these activities are goldmines for decent jobs (New York City Mayors’ Office of Long-term Planning and Sustainability 2012).

The experience of Boston suggests that climate action can generate many high quality jobs and bring significant economic benefits. Demand for energy and climate-related services have the potential to create thousands of jobs. Energy efficiency and behaviour change are promising multi-win domains with multiplier effects, and are expected to produce a net savings of over $2 billion by 2020 through lower energy bills (City of Boston 2011).

The creation of green jobs, central to the transition to a zero/low carbon economy and society, is considered by the World Bank to be the most human face of green solidarity. Blue green jobs signal the transformation of economies, enterprises, workplaces and labour markets into a sustainable, low-carbon economy providing decent work in balance with the sea. But innovative strategies to promote blue green jobs can only succeed with the full involvement of local authorities and participation of workers and enterprises (ILO 2012; World Bank 2012a, b, c).

The emerging blue green economy may offer multi-sector and cross-sector jobs, and coastal cities could play an important role in human capital creation. From a citizen perspective, choosing the right skills and pathways is vital for a successful professional and social life. From the perspective of the sustainable urban economy, it is crucial to improve skills prospects, labour market adjustments, adaptability of enterprises and workers to change, and to develop new sectors. The concept of flexicurity, “flexibility within security”, can also be extended to blue-green sectors.

Blue green growth can reshape labour markets, while the adequate labour and skill policies can help in maximising and sharing the potential benefits. The impact of a transition towards a greener economy on labour markets could extend far beyond the generation of new green jobs, such as those related to the bioeconomy and renewable energy sources. New opportunities, but also new risks, could emerge and alter labour market dynamics. The challenge for skill agendas and labour markets is to maximise the sustainable value and contribute to a fair sharing of benefits and costs. Suggested policy priorities include the smooth reallocation of workers to growing eco-sectors, such as the blue economy, eco-innovation and the diffusion of blue green technologies by strengthening initial education and professional training, and reform of tax and benefit systems to ensure that pressures do not become a barrier to employment (OECD 2012).

Offshore energy developments offer ample employment opportunities. Many direct and indirect jobs have already been generated in research, technology development and demonstration, component manufacturing and the operation of infrastructures and services. In the EU, a world leader in wind technologies, offshore wind activities employed, directly and indirectly, 58,000 citizens. Ocean energy also has the potential to create new, high-quality jobs in project development, component manufacturing and operations. Indicative job estimates suggest that 10,500–26,500 permanent jobs and up to 14,000 temporary jobs could be created in the EU by 2035 (EC 2014a).

Offshore wind developments are very important for employment creation. In Belgium, the offshore wind activities, centred in Oostende, directly employed 2615 professionals in 2012, while the indirect impact on employment accounted for 3522 additional jobs. Employment expectations from the North Sea offshore wind are high and the European Wind Energy Association warned about the possible forthcoming lack of adequate skills and the need for new training schemes (EWEA 2014).

Urban blue economy projects could target young people out of the traditional education and training schemes and offer them a fulfilling first employment experience, for example, in a renewable energy or green tourism recycling project. Shipping and maritime activities which respect the environment can offer rewarding onshore, offshore and fleet careers. Maritime jobs can involve working with state-of-the-art technology, for example, in exploratory ships or a multipurpose platform, maintaining high quality and safety standards, supporting marine technical know-how and preventing harm to marine ecosystems. Coastal cities can bring together all stakeholders and organise training sessions and support schemes.

The European ships and maritime equipment industry employs more than 500,000 people and have an average annual turnover of around €72 billion. The European shipbuilding and ship repairing industry is made up of around 300 yards, of which more than 80 % can be considered to be dedicated to small to medium ships of 60–150 m. The remaining yards can be defined as large. Around 90 % of the demand is for export markets.

Shipbuilding has virtually vanished in Belgian ports but some small companies for ship repair and maintenance are left in Antwerp and Oostende. Maritime transport is an important activity centred in the highly complementary ports of Antwerp, Oostende and Zeebrugge and Ghent. The total direct employment in the ports amounted to 120,528 full time equivalents in 2009. The direct maritime employment of the four ports has shrunk and most of it concentrates in the port of Antwerp, which hosts the largest Belgian sea and coastal freight water transport companies. Short-sea shipping is of higher importance than deep-sea shipping but passenger ferry activities, traditionally concentrated in Oostende, have declined significantly following the construction of the Channel tunnel.

European marine equipment manufacturing and industry, including propulsion, cargo handling, communication, automation, and integrated systems, is made up of around 7500 companies, the vast majority of which can be considered to be small to medium. Around 70 % of production is for export markets.

Coastal cities have to care about the quality of jobs but also the quality of life of those not engaged in employment, education or training or at risk of poverty. Although employment is considered to be the first factor of social integration, over 8 % of the EU population in employment is estimated to be at risk of poverty and the trend in income inequality remains a generally upward one. Cities have therefore to ensure that the risk of poverty is contained and exclusion is prevented, while investing in the interconnected spheres of education and training, labour and housing markets (Mega 2013).

Employment still remains the best defence against poverty and social inclusion but it does not eliminate the risk of social exclusion. Six in ten working-age Europeans at risk of poverty or social exclusion have a job and may be qualified as working poor. This exemplifies the need for an integrated approach addressing both social and employment situations. Working on a temporary contract, which is the case for 40 % of youths, is another crucial feature. Temporary contracts often carry a wage penalty, and this is a particular concern in countries where uncertainty and temporary work are high. Emerging and potential working poor must be understood from a household perspective, notably as regards the composition of the nucleus, the presence of children and the involvement of all adult members in employment.

The legacy of the protracted crisis continues to seriously affect the lives of many citizens. Labour underutilisation, in particular of vulnerable groups, such as single parents, older and disabled citizens and migrants, is a major cause of the risk of poverty or social exclusion concerning four in ten working-age Europeans. Labour market flexibility in the sustainable blue economy may offer an array of quality jobs and help the integration of more workers. In times of uncertainty, the multiplicity and complexity of social inclusion require structural reforms combining employment and social policies and addressing both competitiveness and fairness challenges (EC 2015).

6.2 Urban Coastal Communities and Intercultural Dialogue

Cities are the mirrors of societies. Social cohesion has an utmost value for sustainable cities, places of harmonious economic, gender, social, ethnic, racial, generational and cultural coexistence and cross-fertilisation. Social justice is a precondition for the creation and sharing of sustainable wealth. Diversity is not an obvious asset, since otherness and difference often raise feelings of suspicion, which may generate incomprehension and engender violence. Openness, understanding and mutual re-cognition and acceptance have made many thriving cities and are considered to be critical factors for sustainable prosperity.

A strong human and social capital is an appreciated high feature of all cities striving for sustainability, and it increases the urban capacity to withstand crises. Given the powerful relationship between urbanisation and capital accumulation, the city can easily become a social arena within which conflicts are often unavoidable. The role of equity in shaping sustainability processes is unparalleled. Unequal distribution of wealth may result in revolt, unsustainable lifestyles and obstacles to cultural change. The breadth, scale and impact of these tensions are very diverse. The escalation of conflicts, especially in times of crisis, may transform movements for the right to the city into urban uprisings and revolutionary actions (Harvey 2012).

The main social challenges for cities include the fair distribution of wealth and solidarity, the harmonious co-existence of more than three generations, high-quality employment and home environments, the creation of a welcoming and friendly environment for newcomers and the most vulnerable and disadvantaged citizens, public well-being and security, and the enhancement of opportunities linked to urban diversity. Its people living longer healthy lives can be a great chance for a city wishing to address the expectations of an older population, with the added benefit of the greater experience and contribution aiding in the quest to care for future generations.

Urban poverty is a very serious problem. According to the United Nations Development Programme Multidimensional Poverty Index, almost 1.5 billion people in 91 developing countries are living in poverty, with overlapping deprivations in health, education and living standards. Although poverty is declining overall, almost 800 million people are at risk of falling back into poverty traps. Environmental disasters and extreme phenomena linked to climate change may further aggravate their condition. Many people face either structural or life-cycle and ad hoc vulnerabilities that sap their potential for fulfilment (UNDP 2014).

Universal access to fundamental services, such as health and education, is crucial for strengthening human capital and preventing social exclusion and multiple inequalities. Those working for local services in everyday contact with people are best placed to see the persons behind the statistics. In the framework of the Europe 2020 strategy, a three-pronged approach addresses the three main dimensions of poverty and exclusion, including income poverty, material deprivation, and exclusion from the labour market.

The reduction and eradication of poverty is a strong priority for all sustainable development policies, especially in ageing societies. Poverty-trap conditions of low income and welfare-dependent structures can exacerbate exclusion and seriously compromise chances for advancing towards sustainable development. Increased financial pressures, in a complex and fragmented institutional environment, have to be addressed through the horizontal and vertical integration of decision-making systems and the optimisation of the contribution and commitment of the public, private and social economy sectors (Parkinson 1998).

Sustainable enterprises can play a great role for local development and social cohesion. Cities can increase awareness of the role of social economy and develop a favourable environment for enterprises which incorporate sustainability values and offer opportunities for the empowerment of minorities. The social enterprises, rooted in local realities, demonstrated greater resilience in the face of the financial crisis compared to other enterprises. This resilience is a good indicator of their capacity to sustain their economic activities or to engage in markets with growth potential.

Social cohesion reinforces the resilience of places and communities. A quartered city mirrors multiple divisions due to socio-economic developments, and new waves of migration. The combination of these factors often results in multi-fragmented spaces and functions. The decline of many urban port areas has led to distressed areas suffering functional impoverishment, with destitute housing, failing services and insufficient equipment, delinquency and crime, high unemployment, low mobility, little access to information, education and training, and high levels of substance abuse. Very often, transport infrastructures, whether operating or disused, further fragment the urban web and further isolate distressed spaces from vibrant urban areas. Comprehensive urban policies have to simultaneously address all these aspects and create a new momentum for attracting and integrating a diverse population.

As with all cities, coastal cities have to ensure the regeneration of their spatial and social fabric if they are committed to preserving their social capital. They must offer all citizens access to information, education and training, adequate housing and noble public, green and recreational spaces, social services and the possibility to participate in co-designing the future of the city in harmony with the sea. Vulnerable coastal cities must in particular inform citizens about the risks that the proximity of the sea involves and engage them in collaborative prevention design processes. Building social cohesion contributes to the creation of a resilient society, able to endure threats (Galbraith 1996).

Cultural diversity, a resource for the dynamism and energy of a city, can also increase social cohesion. Developing a sense of belonging and identity is crucial for cities wishing to adapt to change and enhance their diverse resources to attract investment. If cities manage diversity properly, they can benefit hugely from the potential of all minorities for entrepreneurship and innovation. For this, they should review the array of policies, services and instruments to create the appropriate conditions and governance structures.

The human face of cities is composed out of very diverse singular social attributes. Its richness springs out of the plurality of otherness. In coastal cities, many diverse races and cultures coexist and interact. It is crucial to promote intercultural dialogue in order to avoid “ghettoisation”, a term invented in a coastal city, and prevent spirals of identity violence. The blue economy can generate many precious synergies which can be captured and harvested for the benefit of all citizens. Working together with civil society can create a climate which values diversity, openness and freedom by offering everyone the opportunity to share knowledge, exchange ideas and strengthen the elements that compose the marine identity of a city.

Intergenerational solidarity is an essential dimension of sustainable cities. The noble cause of sustainable development can offer a shared value to adhere and make a trans-generational contribution. The 2012 European year for active ageing and solidarity between generations suggested that, instead of creating conflict over scarce resources, ageing could be turned into an opportunity to enrich citizens with the possibility of contributing to community life and keeping contact across generations conscious and alive. Otherness of cultures can also enrich the dynamics of difference. Older scientists from other places have precious capital to transfer to the younger generations, as have older leaders and businessmen. Sea navigators and explorers are particularly appreciated as role models for younger generations.

The generation project, in Portugal, emerged from the need to improve the prospects of youths in the periphery of Lisbon. Older adults can invest time and experience in activities ranging from care for the very young, enabling parents to stay in full-time employment, to a number of programmes with children that encourage them to persevere in education. The “If You Keep Studying” project provides education and training in the fields of martial arts and music (EC 2010a). Ocean projects involving various generations could bring multiple benefits.

Intergenerational cities are those in which every generation brings its best to the service of all. This is a process that the city leaders have to manage, including the enhancing of the talents of the elderly in order to train the next generation of city leaders. The rights of the elderly are enshrined in the Treaty for the Functioning of the European Union. Active ageing policies should include supportive measures such as discouraging early retirement, stimulating learning and training to avoid skills obsolescence, adapting working conditions to the specific characteristics of older adults, valuing volunteering community work, promoting good health of older workers, and providing care for the elderly, while making them most valuable to the city. Universities for the elderly expand their offer for sustainable development to include a great variety of courses of interest to older adults. Coastal cities can sponsor courses that have a special interest for the marine communities and the exploration of the oceans.

Ethnic, religious and cultural diversity are extremely important for sustainable cities, since migration is one of the defining global social phenomena of the twenty-first century, with high potential and impact. A key feature of the increasingly interdependent world, it enables the exchange of talents, services, skills and experiences. An estimated 64 million immigrants live in Europe making up 9 % of the population, while in the USA, the immigrant population reached 13 % (OECD 2014).

The world population of migrants is expected to continue to increase and the majority of them are established in developed countries and especially in cities. Foresight studies emphasise that international migration will increase and counterbalance demographic dynamics. Migration offers a means to alleviate pressures on the social security systems of countries with rapidly ageing populations that face workforce shortages. An OECD study, however, suggests that, although global migration flows are very likely to rise, they would not suffice to offset the effects of population decline in OECD countries (OECD 2009b).

The emphasis on and public funds devoted to integration policies vary substantially across countries, despite a common need to support migrants’ labour market integration in order to avoid possible long-lasting effects, notably on young migrants and native-born children of immigrants. Some countries continue to invest significant public resources in integration initiatives.

Most migration journeys choose metropolitan areas, cities and their suburbs, as destination. Consequently, the local environment and experience play a significant role in their settlement. The motivations and incentives, the opportunities and associated risks, and the potential for migration to benefit labour balances and development have been the subject of many analyses. A politically sensitive issue, migration requires public authorities to clear up stereotypes and misunderstandings and create a welcome culture. From refugees and asylum seekers to expats, the spectrum of immigration is increasingly diversified and defies standardised approaches (Cities of migration 2012).

Many migrants choose coastal cities, like New York, Boston and San Francisco, the largest continuous immigrant gateways in the US. London, Rotterdam and Amsterdam are gateways for Europe. Almost half of the population of Rotterdam is non-native residents. The labour and housing market situations are defining attraction factors, but also local openness and acceptance of new citizens. Long-term unemployment of migrants is, however, a serious challenge in many countries. The average unemployment rate of the foreign residents in OECD countries has increased by 5 % between 2008 and 2012, compared with 3 % for the native born (OECD 2013). An expanding blue green economy could provide an integration nexus for newcomers to cities by the sea.

Many coastal cities owe much of their wealth to foreigners. International statistics suggest that Dubai welcomes the largest immigrant population in the world, with more than 70 % of its population being foreign nationals. While this diaspora is predominantly from South Asia, there is also a significant western population. Vancouver is another notoriously multi-cultural city. More than 50 % of the Vancouver population is immigrants, many of whom have claimed Canadian citizenship. Many of these immigrants are of European or Asian origin, bringing with them a wide range of cultures and traditions.

Coastal cities can play a role in changing the perception of migrants, both in the societies of origin and destination, and forge bonds of solidarity among world communities. The religious and spiritual value of the sea can help in bridging differences. Social services and innovative projects involving young emigrants can have significant impact. Interfaith cultural centres and events, especially in disadvantaged areas, help minorities coexist harmoniously and interact peacefully. The organisation of exceptional events, for example, inter-religious open days, can stimulate dialogue among populations that do not usually communicate amongst each other.

After decades of established large cities drawing the majority of immigrants, new opportunities appear for cities like Barcelona, Copenhagen and Malmö in Europe. They can learn from Amsterdam, the European capital of tolerance, one of the best examples of urban openness and willingness to accept and integrate newcomers coming to be considered a source of wealth and progress. Since the city’s golden age, political refugees, intellectuals and workers of every race and belief have always lived side by side with the local population and enriched all activities. Plurality and respect to the difference, key, elements in many civilisations, have played an important role for the prosperity of the city.

Openness and tolerance, understanding, solidarity and equal opportunities are key principles for integrating immigrants and enriching cities. The Barcelona Interculturality Plan, published in 2010, is the result of more than a decade of work by the Barcelona City Council. Intended to serve as a roadmap for the city’s action to address the challenges of “coexistence in diversity”, the plan initiated a different policy that focuses on the relationships and interaction between citizens, the dialogue and the mutual opening of both newcomers and long-term residents. The purpose is to create new foundations for community life which transcends cultural divergences.

If cities wish to attract talent in a competitive world, they should develop a welcoming culture. Boston created a Mayor’s Office of New Bostonians to better recognise the resources and skills of immigrants and provide them with the necessary support to enhance them. The settlement and integration of newcomers is a fundamentally local experience and the quality of the welcome has a huge influence on their future success and ultimately on the prosperity of the cities. Bilbao developed a multicultural resource guide offering information on a wide array of city services, including healthcare, education and employment services. With the support of the Maytree Foundation, cities started exchanging their experiences in welcoming migrants and contributed to over 100 “Good ideas in integration” about cities which have been enriched by the energy and opportunity of immigration flows. Each good idea includes success steps and resources to help policy makers (Fundacion Bertelsmann and Cities of Migration 2012).

Many coastal cities have adopted active integration strategies and have mainstreamed them into their policies to strengthen their collaborative gene and aim for leadership which reflects the full diversity of the urban society in the public, non-profit, and private sectors. The number of languages spoken in a given city is becoming an important indicator of cultural diversity. It is estimated that 233 languages are spoken in London, a number indicative of the ethnic communities living in the British capital. Schools are the roots of integration, allowing for the experience of cultural and religious diversity facilitated by the natural open-mindedness of children (Fundacion Bertelsmann and Cities of Migration 2012).

Innovative multi-stakeholder partnerships can best address complex situations and groups in society, and stimulate bottom-up and mutual-trust approaches to help the integration of ethnic minorities. Schemes empowering poor immigrants and especially women, through micro-enterprise development and initiatives promoting sustainable value chains and training in vocational and business skills, are most promising. The Suikeroom project in Amsterdam is a fund for ethnic start-up companies financed by established companies. The fund, created in 2006, helps ethnic minority entrepreneurs, appraised as potential profit makers, successfully start a business. The young entrepreneurs receive guidance for preparing a solid business plan and are introduced to investors (Eurocities 2010).

Antwerp, the dynamic fashion city, integrated immigrants in its web of creativity through Betet Skara, a local weaving house employing Assyrian Christian refugees using traditional weaving techniques. As with most newcomers and political refugees, the Assyrian community arriving in Antwerp had to find sources of employment and create wealth. The professional craft of hand weaving, once a declining industry, is being revitalised by this local social enterprise, through techniques and weaving patterns passed on from generation to generation. They form an intangible asset which gave rise to a full enterprise, offering its services to fashion and interior design companies across Europe.

Education, housing, health, sports, culture and local politics are the sectors with the highest potential for the integration of migrants in the city (EC 2010b). The urban contexts are important and impact the ways in which immigrants interact with institutions such as schools and healthcare systems and contribute to the wealth of the city. Cities should invest in preventing tensions between spatial proximity and cultural distance, also linked to the coexistence of migrants with other very diverse established social groups.

Auckland is a city reputed to be very welcoming to immigrant populations. The city enjoys one of the highest quality environments in the Southern Hemisphere, with well-developed businesses and infrastructure. Many world citizens are attracted to New Zealand’s capital, which organises a great number of events to honour their origins and their cultures. The city enhances the universal languages of arts and sports for promoting communication and intercultural dialogue with the newcomers.

Socio-economic integration can start with music or dance, video or soccer. Such activities forge bonds among populations divided by mother tongue and tradition and help the integration of young migrants or refugees while fostering a sense of identity and belonging. In Auckland, soccer has been used as a strategic tool to reduce the social isolation of young refugees and to help them feel connected with each other and the wider community. The Refugees in Sport Initiative was launched in 2006 by “Refugees as Survivors”, a non-profit refugee mental health agency enabling young refugees to achieve better access into mainstream sports and a safe place to meet with others sharing and understanding their experience. The programme has expanded to offer other sports such as cricket and martial arts and also to encourage girls from refugee backgrounds to participate in both team and individual sports (Fundacion Bertelsmann and Cities of Migration 2012).

In Heraklion, the project “I am Roma” tried to promote integration, raise awareness of Roma culture and rights, fight discrimination and improve interactions between Roma and non-Roma populations. The city developed concrete support actions to foster the social inclusion of Roma people, such as literacy, learning and mediation seminars. In 2006, the city set up a socio-medical centre which provides health, education and employment services to Roma citizens. Educational programmes were complemented with vocational and entrepreneurial training schemes. A series of actions were undertaken focusing on the awareness of Roma rights and culture through the media and education system. An antidiscrimination campaign targeted children through school events and intercultural discussions. Approximately 550 people from the Roma camp and 250 more Roma from the wider urban area benefited, while the local society gained a more harmonious social climate (EFUS and ICPC 2014).

6.3 Housing and Active Inclusion in Coastal Cities

Decent and sound housing is considered to be the second factor of social integration, after employment. As with all cities, coastal cities have to provide the conditions for good quality private and social housing, allowing for personal and collective fulfilment. In the path to sustainable development, housing schemes go through radical renewal to enhance ecological performance and become socially uplifting and architecturally compelling.

In the emerging world, global partnerships, such as Cities Alliance, link housing to the fight against poverty and bring together cities striving for urban poverty reduction and the promotion of sustainable development. The partnership features a broad range of stakeholders, including local authorities, national governments, non-governmental organisations, and multilateral organisations. The Cities Alliance’s overall strategic objectives are to support cities providing effective local government, an active citizenship and an economy characterised by both public and private investment. The Cities Alliance seeks to achieve its objectives through national policy frameworks to address urban development needs, local inclusive strategies and plans, improved services to the urban poor and mechanisms to engage citizens in urban governance for sustainable development.

Before the turn of the millennium, the “Cities Without Slums Action Plan” was the first endeavour of the Cities Alliance, which proposed a target of improving the lives of 100 million slum dwellers by the year 2020, introducing for the first time such a measurable target in the international development arena. South African President N. Mandela launched the Action Plan, which was subsequently incorporated into the United Nations Millennium Declaration in 2000 as Target 11 of the Millennium Development Goals.

In industrialised cities, homelessness is still a serious challenge for all cities and there is no evidence that coastal cities suffer more than other cities (Eurocities 2009). In the USA, research by the Martin Prosperity Institute mapped homelessness across the 100 largest US metro areas. The surveys on Hunger and Homelessness by the US Conference of Mayors highlight that most of the surveyed cities reported that requests for emergency food assistance increased over the years and that more than 10 % among those asking for assistance were homeless. Unemployment led the chorus of causes of hunger as reported by the cities, followed by poverty, low wages, and high housing costs. A great majority of the cities reported that their total budget for emergency food purchases increased over the last year. And still, across the surveyed cities, 27 % of the people needing emergency food assistance did not receive it (US Conference of Mayors 2013).

Los Angeles and New York alone accounted for almost one in five homeless people in United States, with more than 12 % in Los Angeles and more than 6 % in New York. The 2014 US annual homelessness assessment report to Congress stated that 610,042 citizens were homeless on a given night in January 2013, and more than 100,000 suffered from chronic homelessness. Almost one quarter of all homeless were children and most were living in emergency shelters or transitional housing. The situation has much improved since the implementation of the “Opening doors: Federal strategic plan to prevent and end homelessness”. Total homelessness declined more than 6 %, and this was driven by the reduction of the unsheltered chronic homeless (Department of Housing and Urban Development 2014).

Some pioneer cities have given the homeless the right to use the details of the municipality as their postal address. Other cities allowed solidarity action to extend the possibilities of housing. At the other end of the spectrum, many cities use the criminal justice system to punish those trying to survive on the street. In response to the homelessness crisis, the US National Law Centre on Homelessness and Poverty and the National Coalition for the Homeless released the report “Homes Not Handcuffs”, identifying and pinpointing the criminalisation of homelessness. A list of the meanest cities has been proposed to name and shame cities which have even enacted food sharing restrictions that punish groups and individuals for serving homeless people. Many of these measures appear to have the purpose of moving the homeless out of sight, if not out of the city.

In many developed coastal cities, waterfront spaces are usually considered to offer privileged housing spaces and have a higher location value if surrounded by clean sea environments. Mixed waterfront residential neighbourhoods expand on often artificial land. Artificial islands are already common extensions of overcrowded frontline cities and harbouring airports, but dredging activities can bring considerable pressure on marine ecosystems. Innovative sustainable housing on artificial islands can be a response to severe housing shortages in coastal cities. This was the case of Ijburg, one of the latest neighbourhoods in Amsterdam. It is a unique urban planning experiment that consisted of creating a neighbourhood from scratch. Ijburg is composed of an archipelago of seven artificial islands responding to the Dutch tradition and culture of living with and on the water.

The vision for Ijburg was of a diversified urban neighbourhood in symbiosis with the surrounding nature and the sea. The initiation of the project faced strong opposition by environmental activists on the grounds that it would be a threat to the ecological balance of the area. The design of the project adopted an ecologically sensitive approach through the involvement of environmental groups in the conception and planning process and ensured an engaging outcome. Ijburg was granted final approval in 1997. The district was developed using an innovative public-private partnership. The private partners committed to purchase land in advance to guarantee the future success of the neighbourhood, developed with a relatively high number of houses that are suitable for families and children. The diversity of building and architecture styles has been achieved with two islands reserved for plot-based housing development. Parcels were acquired by individual citizens developing their properties with the architects of their choice.

The creation of land on sea and the endowment with infrastructure, new roads, bridges, and services was facilitated through public funding. A new tram line was also extended to connect Ijburg to Amsterdam’s city centre. Ijburg residents have access to the fastest public fibre optic broadband Internet. Amsterdam Smart City is working with them to develop new products and services, such as education, healthcare, transport, and energy, and improve the local quality of life.

New neighbourhoods offer ample opportunities for improved environmental management. The Beddington Zero Energy Development in the London Borough of Sutton, or BedZED, has been the UK’s ultimate eco-district, the first housing development designed to be environmentally friendly. A multi-award winning project, created in 2000–2002 by BioRegional, BedZED is owned and managed by Peabody, one of London’s largest housing associations. The development encourages energy efficiency and use of renewables, public transport, cycling, and walking, and asks for limits to private cars and parking space. The residents’ car mileage is 65 % less than the UK average (Bioregional Solutions for Sustainability 2009).

Bioclimatic architecture was well enhanced in BedZED. All houses face south to take advantage of solar gain, are triple glazed, and have high thermal insulation. Low-impact materials were used for the building, selected from renewable or recycled sources within 35 miles of the site, to minimise the energy required for transportation. The project is designed to use only decentralised renewable energy. Tree waste fuels the development’s cogeneration plant to provide district heating and electricity. Most rain water is collected and reused. Appliances are chosen to be water-efficient and to use recycled water when possible. A review of the BedZed development in 2010 drew mainly positive comments from the residents and neighbours. It has also highlighted some negative facts, including the reliability problems of the combined heat and power system due to technical failures and the intermittent schedule of operation imposed by the local authority, the insufficient cleaning of the water by the “living machine” water recycling facility and the still high, ecological footprint of the residents, which is, however, about to become half of the UK average ecological footprint.

6.4 Fit Marine Cities, Public Health and Safety

Healthy and fit cities provide the living cells for a healthy planet. In harmonious symbiosis with healthy seas, coastal cities can generate virtuous circles and reverse cycles of environmental degradation, physical isolation, obsolete infrastructures and neglected public spaces, which go hand in hand with poor education, unemployment, weak health and public participation, crime and violence. Fulfilling homes and welcoming public spaces generate dynamics for good education to work patterns, public health and participation.

Coastal cities could be inspired by the US place-based programmes of choice and promise neighbourhoods. People living in fragile communities stamped by poverty have a greater risk of being excluded. Policy interest in comprehensive community well-being initiatives has surged with two federal programmes, the Department of Education’s Promise Neighbourhoods, modelled on the acclaimed Harlem Children’s Zone, and Choice Neighbourhoods by the Department of Housing and Urban Development. They both intend to address vital local needs with the active participation of the targeted population of all generations.

Promise neighbourhoods tried to foster a culture that creates a “cradle-through-college-to-career” continuum and promotes multiple positive effects across sectors. Neighbourhood students have to be safe, healthy and improve their life and career prospects, through coordinated community efforts. Choice neighbourhoods focus on communities dependent on social housing to be transformed into communities of opportunity with good-quality affordable housing and high-performing schools and services. The contextual dynamics of the local communities are crucial in shaping the transformation effort and capturing the longer-term benefits (Urban Institute 2011).

Coastal cities can play a major role for the well-being of their citizens, through preventing and combatting diseases and forging healthy lifestyles. Contemplating the sea is already a source of mental relaxation and brings peace and well-being. Good quality seafood could help change eating patterns and address, for example, the epidemic of overweight and obesity, a critical public health issue. Obesity can lead to serious and chronic diseases and is a major contributor to increasingly unaffordable public health care costs. Studies concluded that obesity, diabetes and hypertension seem to increase in tandem with rapid urbanisation and pointed to “obesogenic”, predominantly urban environments as a risk factor. Many urban activities often promoted convenience and minimal physical effort. The dense urban transport network, the easy-to-access services, and the absence of adequate recreational spaces, parks and athletic facilities do not invite citizens to exercise (Institute of Medicine 2012).

Coastal cities could become pioneers in initiating programmes promoting sea nutrition and physical activity through nautical sports. Public beaches accessible to all could help cities in making physical activity and swimming an integral part of everyday life. They could also make creative partnerships with the private sector and local businesses to create healthy and, if possible, marine food environments that ensure that healthy options are the routine, easy choice in public places. Last but not least, they should partner with schools in which so many health and environmental projects begin, but also with local chefs and athletes.

Schools could be perfect focal points for obesity prevention, ensuring that all students have adequate opportunities to engage in physical activity and access to nutrition literacy, as well as enhancing access to the sea as being access to health and well-being. Marine communities have to be empowered to work for change and cities can support their efforts in many ways to achieve and maintain a healthy weight. Safe public places to walk or play, outlets offering affordable healthy food, and awareness campaigns for healthy foods and beverages can encourage citizens to engage in healthier lifestyles and achieve and maintain a healthy weight (Institute of Medicine 2012).

Coastal and port cities are places of large populations in transit. This could make them more susceptible to the spread of infectious diseases. During the last two decades, Singapore suffered from two major epidemics, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome and H1N1, both imported. Three months following its identification in Mexico, the 2009 H1N1 influenza virus became a global pandemic affecting practically every country. In Singapore, researchers tracked the transmission of the virus by looking for antibodies, a type of immune response to infection.

Well-being for the ageing is very important in cities which must prepare for increases in their older populations. In Bangkok, the Health Department set up operation plans and projects to care for the ageing population. The projects are steered by 68 Public Health Centres located in 50 districts in Bangkok. The Public Health Centre in the Nong Khaem District, bringing together medical doctors, dentists, medical scientists, pharmacists, nurses, nutritionists, psychologists, general staff, and elderly care volunteers, is emerging as the first Public Health Centre. Its official operation was initiated in 2011 with the concept of long-term care treatment for the elderly in three phases, including the primary phase (for ages 60–69), secondary phase (for ages 70–79), and tertiary phase (for ages over 80). Elderly citizens in the surrounding communities approved the scheme, which also welcomes experts from other cities wishing to shape projects for older adults (Asian-Pacific City Summit 2014).

A healthy city is a city that puts promoting public health high on its political agenda for the well-being of its citizens. Public health is not merely the absence of epidemics or disease, but is a state of complete public physical, mental and social well-being. The Healthy Cities movement, launched by the World Health Organisation in 1987, brings together cities which have developed and implemented a wide range of policies, including health profiles and urban health strategies through community initiatives and programmes that address the needs of citizens, cultural lifestyles, environmental health, and sustainable development.

The Healthy Cities movement aims at improving health for all and reducing health inequalities, and also improving leadership and participatory governance for health. The Zagreb Declaration expressed a strong commitment by the political leaders of cities to bolster and champion action on health, equity, sustainable development and social justice. It highlighted continuing values and priorities and identified new challenges and approaches for cities to address and adopt as they work to protect and enhance the health and well-being of all their citizens (WHO 2009).

Interconnected healthy cities offer a pragmatic framework for concrete cooperation and progress at the local level. Healthy Cities facilitate urban health promotion through projects, training and seminars, many of which link to the sea. Benchmarking between the network cities in relation to many different public health themes is promoted. The “Cities for a Healthier Sea”, conceived in 2010, in close connection with the Baltic Sea Challenge campaign, promoted voluntary water protection measures in the Baltic cities.

Urban safety is a critical dimension of well-being in cities. The European Forum of Urban Safety (EFUS) shed light on the interconnected issues of Cities, democracy and safety. The “Cities’ manifesto for Safety and Democracy”, adopted in Naples in 2000, expressed the desire for quality cities, defined as safe, vital places of harmonious development and immune to insecurity, violence and extremism. Recurrent issues include violence against vulnerable social groups and sensitive places like schools and streets and innovative prevention measures. The exchange of experience and cooperation are judged essential for guaranteeing the legitimate right to safety (EFUS 2003, 2006).

In Tanzania, the Dar es Salaam Safer Cities project tried to raise awareness and strengthen the capacity of local authorities to manage urban safety and reduce crime, including violence against women, children, and other vulnerable groups, and to create a culture of crime prevention and safety at the neighbourhood level, initiated by the local communities affected by insecurity. All stakeholders worked together to develop local solutions to prevent crime and build awareness among communities. The first phase of the project identified youth crime and violence against women as priority concerns. Victimisation surveys and a young offender survey provided insights for the conception of an integrated crime prevention strategy. The strategy encompasses law enforcement, including the creation of the City Auxiliary Police, the development of neighbourhood watch groups and the Ward Tribunals to expedite minor offences, social and economic issues including job creation and skills training, cultural and recreational activities for youth at risk, and improvements of the local environment (EFUS and ICPC 2014).

The project strengthened and embedded institutional capacity and skills in crime prevention. The neighbourhood watch groups were engaged by the community for neighbourhood watch, after some basic militia training from retired officers. The project enhanced security in the local society and promoted women’s safety and empowerment by training community members to conduct the safety audits and implement recommendations. Continuous public awareness campaigns also helped to create a culture of adherence to the law and partnerships in local innovations for crime prevention.

In Rotterdam, the City Marines scheme achieved impressive results in improving conditions in the most unsafe neighbourhoods. It is a local approach that combines authority and law enforcement, mobilisation of stakeholders, and mediation. A City Marine is an experienced respected senior person acting as a special delegate of the mayor with the responsibility for tackling problems in the most unsafe neighbourhoods. Appointed directly by the Mayor of Rotterdam, each city marine reports to the “Safety steering group” comprised of the mayor, attorney general and chief of police. The city marines have the authority to introduce change and access funds, and also work on mobilising the community, making partnerships between local stakeholders such as the employment service, housing agencies or businesses, to bring immediate solutions and produce quick results (EFUS and ICPC 2014).

The well-being of children is a litmus test for the future of urban societies. Each place can make a difference. Children’s use of space and time has to be valued and enhanced. Environmental quality is important to children’s socio-emotional and mental health, cognitive development and respiratory health. Children with attention deficit disorders can benefit from activities in green playground areas or at the seashore. The sea experience seems to have a well-being effect both as a permanent residential horizon and as a holiday destination (Children’s Society 2014; OECD 2009a).

Sea and coastal sports can make a major contribution to the well-being of urban populations. The Ellen MacArthur Cancer Trust takes young people, aged between 8 and 24 years old, sailing to help them regain their confidence, on their way to recovery from cancer. The idea came in 2000, when, some months before the start of the Vendee Globe Round the World race, Ellen MacArthur went sailing in France with a group of children suffering from cancer. Supported by a number of dedicated volunteers, the trust celebrated 10 years in 2013. The sailing trips formed the platform for the start of a 3-year plan to double the amount of young people in recovery from cancer.

Travelling far beyond the school is a dream shared by most children and the navigators often allow them to be part of that dream. The shared maritime heritage can weave a strong linkage among citizens. Marine heritage routes, like the Route of the Rum or the Silk Road, bring together far more than the citizens of two coastal cities united by an ocean. The Route of the Rum, a transatlantic single-handed yacht race on more than 6500 km between Saint Malo, in Brittany, and Pointe-à-Pitre, in Guadeloupe, taking place every 4 years in November, is a much-anticipated event, followed by a great number of citizens, sponsors and the media. The route completed ten events in 2014, with a record number of 91 competing yachts, and has attracted much attention to the splendours and dangers of the amazing seas.

The Maritime Silk Road is another cross-cultural concept which can contribute to the future blue economy. The 21st Century Maritime Silk Road International Expo in China in 2014 was marked by high expectations. “From Macao we begin” was the emblematic title of the 2014 Global Tourism Economic Forum, building on the unique role of Macao in the ancient maritime Silk Road, linking China to the Middle East and East Africa more than 600 years ago. It is part of an ambitious project to reinvent the Maritime Silk Road and attract a top-level cruise tourism industry. The aim is to invigorate the maritime business and generate jobs in sustainable tourism, which can lead growth, particularly in the 25,000 islands of the Southeast Asian countries. Although Asia Pacific is leading the world tourism growth, its great potential for cruise tourism has yet to be realised. The concept was rebranded with a vision for improving maritime connectivity, enhancing regional cooperation and reinforcing the economic belt along the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road.