Mountainous Vegetation of Central Black Sea Region

Abstract

Central Black Sea Region includes many different vegetation types. At high elevations, forest vegetation is dominant. Some forest types have closed canopies, while some of them can be disturbed mainly due to anthropogenic factors (grazing, clear-cutting, etc.). Oceanic climate is seen in northern slopes, while continental climate is also seen especially in inner parts of the region. Continental climate is also seen in inner parts of stream valley (e.g., Kızılırmak valley). Mediterranean climate is also penetrated in inner parts of the region. As a result of this, it is impossible to draw a demarcation line among different vegetation types. For example, some forest communities include Euxine, steppe, and Mediterranean-type communities and phytosociological classification is too difficult.

9.1 Introduction

The vegetation of Central Black Sea Region belongs to Euxinian sector of Euro-Siberian phytogeographical region. In the east of Melet River, which flows through Ordu city, Colchic sector occurs. Mean annual precipitation in this region is higher than that in the western part of Melet River. The most diagnostic feature of the vegetation of Central Black Sea Region is the difficulty of the separation of different vegetation strata. It is too difficult to draw a demarcation line among communities in most vegetation types. The vegetation of Central Black Sea Region has been changed with elevation. The vegetation of Central Black Sea Region has been separated into three different groups, namely Mediterranean, prepontic, and Euxinian by Quezel et al. (1980). There are seven different vegetation strata, namely coastal Mediterranean strata, Mediterranean intrapontic strata, upper Mediterranean prepontic strata, mountainous prepontic strata, low mountain Euxine strata, high mountain Euxine strata, and subalpine Euxine strata in Central Black Sea Region from sea level to subalpine regions of mountains (Kutbay and Kılınc 1995; Özen and Kılınç 1995; Fig. 9.1).

Fig. 9.1

General aspect of the vegetation of Central Black Sea Region (Kutbay and Kılınç 1995)

9.2 Soil Traits

Brown and noncalcareous brown forest soils are widespread in higher parts of Central Black Sea Region. However, chestnut soils are also found especially in inner parts of the region. Clay loam and loamy textured soils are found in higher parts of Central Black Sea Region. Slightly and moderate alkaline soils are dominant, while Fagus orientalis associations occurred in moderate-to-extreme acidic soils. Organic matter content (%) of soils ranged from moderate to high. CaCO₃ (%) content of soils is low to moderate. However, soils under Pinus and steppe communities may be rich in CaCO₃ (Kutbay and Kılınc 1995; Cansaran and Aydogdu 2001; Cansaran et al. 2010; Korkmaz et al. 2011).

9.3 High Mountainous Vegetation of Central Black Sea Region

Mountainous prepontic strata is characterized by Abies nordmanniana (Stev.) Spach subsp. bornmuelleriana (Mattf.) Coode and Cullen and F. orientalis Lipsky mixed forests at 800–900 m. Quercus pubescens is also characteristic for this strata.

These forests are characterized by Fago orientalis–Abietum nordmannianae (Akman et al. 1983a). The diagnostic species of this association are F. orientalis and A. nordmaniana subsp. bornmuelleriana. Rhododendro-Fagetalia orientalis is characterized mainly by Daphne pontica, Smilax excelsa, Hypericum androsaemum, Ilex colchica, and Rubus hirtus. Querco-Carpinetalia orientalis is characterized by Quercus petraea subsp. iberica, Carpinus betulus, Pyracantha coccinea, Cyclamen coum var. coum, and Asperula involucrata. Carpino-Acerion alliance is represented by Helleborus orientalis. Quercetea Pubescentis class is represented by Genista tinctoria, Hypericum perforatum, Campanula rapunculoides subsp. rapunculoides, and Cotinus coggyria. Fagetalia Sylvaticae is represented by Sanicula europaea and Cardamine bulbifera. Ulmus glabra, Hedera helix, Crataegus monogyna subsp. monogyna, Sambucus ebulus, Staphylea pinnata, Fragaria vesca, Euphorbia amygdaloides var. amygdaloides, Clinopodium vulgare subsp. arundanum, Geranium robertianum, and Campanula glomerata are diagnostic species of Querco-Fagetea. These forests are widely destroyed mainly due to agricultural activities and only locally occurred. A.nordmanniana subsp. bornmuelleriana forests also penetrated in inner parts of Central Black Sea Region in Dutman Mountain around Alacam between 900-1400 m and represented by Saniculo-Abietetum bornmuellerianae on northern slopes. This association includes two subassociations namely fagetosum orientalis and rhododendretosum lutei (Ozen and Kılınc 1995). Prepontic strata is also characterised by Carpino-Fagetum orientalis. This association is found around Nebyan Mountain (Kutbay and Kılınc 1995) and southern parts of Alacam (Ozen and Kılınc 1995).Q. pubescens forest is characteristic of mountainous prepontic strata and occurs in inner parts of Central Black Sea Region from 850 to 1200 m. However, they have not formed close canopies due to some disturbance factors (overgrazing, erosion, etc.) and canopy closure is rather low. These forests are represented by Onobrychido tournefortii–Quercetum pubescentis (Karaer et al. 1999) and Leontodonto asperi–Quercetum pubescentis (Cansaran and Aydogdu 2001). Q. pubescens, Leontodon crispus subsp. asper var. asper, Myosotis arvensis subsp. arvensis, and Melampyrum arvense var. arvense are diagnostic species of Leontodonto asperi–Quercetum pubescentis (Cansaran and Aydogdu 2001) association. Lonicera caucasica subsp. orientalis, Laser trilobum, and Asyneuma rigidum subsp. rigidum are some of the diagnostic species of Carpino betuli–Acerion hyrcani alliance. Chamaecytisus pygmaeus, Astragalus glycyphyllos subsp. glycyphyllos, Colutea cilicica, and Polygala supina are diagnostic species of Querco cerridis–Carpinetalia orientalis order. Quercetea pubescentis class is represented by Cotoneaster nummularia, Dorycnium pentaphyllum subsp. herbaceum, Cotinus coggyria, and Lithospermum purpurocaeruleum. Steppic species namely Dactylis glomerata subsp. hispanica, Helianthemum nummularium subsp. nummularium, Polygala pruinosa subsp. pruinosa, and Festuca valesiaca are diagnostic species of Astragalo microcephali–Brometea tomentelli class. Q. pubescens, Onobrychis tournefortii, and Phlomis pungens are diagnostic species of Onobrychido tournefortii–Quercetum pubescentis (Karaer et al. 1999). Steppic Astragalo-Brometea class is represented by Astragalus microcephalus, Acantholimon acerosum, Iberis taurica, Helianthemum canum, Paronychia chionesa, Cruciata taurica, and Minuartia anatolica var. anatolica, Jurinea consanguinea, Allium flavum subsp. tauricum, Polygala pruinosa, Silene supina subsp. pruinosa, Bungea trifida, Onobrychis armena, and Helianthemum nummularium are diagnostic species of steppic Onobrychido–Thymetalia leucostomi order. Querco-Fagetea class is represented by a few species namely Lapsana communis, Geum urbanum, Epipactis helleborine, Campanula glomerata, Clinopodium vulgare, and Moehringia trinervia. This strata is represented by Corno mari-Quercetum cerridis (Korkmaz et al. 2011) in inner parts around Vezirköprü and Osmancık (Çorum city) from 750 to 1250 m. Quercus cerris var. cerris Carpinus orientalis subsp. orientalis Cornus mas and Scutellaria velenovsky are diagnostic species of that association. This association is composed of two sub-associations, namely loniceretosum etruscae and lathyretosum rosei. Lonicera etrusca var. etrusca Alliaria petiolata and Tanacetum parthenium are differential taxa of loniceretosum etruscae, while Lathyrus roseus, Nepeta nuda subsp. albiflora and Campanula rapunculoides subsp. rapunculoides are differential taxa of Lathyretosum rosei. Lathyrus laxiflorus subsp. laxiflorus, Asyneuma rigidum subsp. sibthorpianum, Vicia truncatula, and Viola sieheana are some of the diagnostic species of Carpino betuli–Acerion hyrcani alliance. Lathyrus tukhtensis, Colutea cilicica, and Trifolium medium var. medium are some of the diagnostic species of Querco cerridis–Carpinetalia orientalis order. Querco pseudocerridis–Cedretalia libani order is represented by Doronicum orientale and Vicia cracca subsp. stenophylla. Some diagnostic species of Quercetea pubescentis class are Silene italica, Geum urbanum, Epipactis condensata, and Crepis reuterana subsp. reuterana. Querco-Fagetea class is represented by Viola odorata, Athyrium filix-foemina, and Stellaria holostea. Juniperus oxycedrus subsp. oxycedrus, Ruscus aculeatus var. angustifolius, Geranium purpureum, Hedysarum varium, and Veronica orientalis subsp. orientalis are some of the diagnostic species of Quercetea ilicis class (Korkmaz et al. 2011; Fig. 9.2).

Fig. 9.2

Fago orientalis–Abietum nordmannianae. (Akman et al. 1983a)

In northern slopes at 900 m, low mountainous Euxine strata occurred and this strata is typically characterized by F. orientalis–Castanetum sativae (Akman et al. 1983b association, Fig. 9.3).

Fig. 9.3

Fago orientalis–Castanetum sativae. (Akman et al. 1983b)

This association consists of tree, shrub, and herb layers. Characteristic species are Castanea sativa, F. orientalis, Smilax excels, and Arum euxium. Rhododendro-Fagetalia orientalis is characterized by Rhododendron luteum, Vaccinium arctastaphyllos, Daphne pontica, Gentiana asclepiadea, Salvia forskahlei, and Trachystemon orientalis. Querco-Carpinetalia orientalis is characterized by Mespilus germanica, Lathyrus laxiflorus subsp. laxiflorus, Oenanthe pimpinelloides, and Dorynium pentaphllum subsp. anatolicum Hypericum perforatum, Coronilla varia, and Campanula rapunculoides subsp. rapunculoides are the diagnostic species of Quercetea Pubescentis. Querco-Fagetea is represented by many species, namely Populus tremula, Crataegus monogyna subsp. monogyna, Tamus communis subsp. communis, Veronica chamaedrys, Stachys sylvatica, and Poa nemoralis.

Above 800 m, mountainous Euxine strata occurs. This strata is characterized by pure F. orientalis forests and Pinus sylvestris L. forests in northern slopes, while in southern slopes Pinus nigra Arn. subsp. pallasiana (Lamb.) Holmboe forests are replaced. Pure F. orientalis are widespread in Central Black Sea Region. In Eastern Black Sea Region, pure F. orientalis forests are not found and these forests are usually replaced by Picea orientalis forests. F. orientalis forests usually form mixed forests with the other deciduous species in Eastern Black Sea Region.

Rhododendron luteum, Veronica magna, and Prenanthes cacaliifola are the diagnostic species of Rhododendro-Fagetum orientalis (Kutbay and Kılınc 1995) association. Diagnostic species of Rhododendro-Fagetalia orientalis are Hypericum androsaemum, Daphne pontica, Rubus hirtus, Salvia forskahlei, and Gentiana asclepiadea. Querco-Carpinetalia orientalis is represented by a few species, namely H. orientalis, Cyclamen coum var. coum, and Lathyrus laxiflorus subsp. laxiflorus. However, Querco-Fagetea is represented by many species, namely Populus tremula, Ulmus glabra, Stachys sylvatica, Cardamine impatiens var. pectinata, C. bulbifera, Salvia forskahlei, S. glutinosa, and Geranium robertianum (Kutbay and Kılınc 1995). Pure F. orientalis forests are also widespread in inner parts of Black Sea Region in northern slopes. For example, Veronico melissaefoliace–Fagetum orientalis (Quezel et al. 1980) association is occurrs around Erbaa in Kelkit valley (Karaer et al. 1999). F. orientalis, Veronica magna, Arum euxinum, and Salvia glutinosa are the diagnostic species of this association. Veronico-Fagion alliance is represented by Veronica peduncularis and Arum orientale. Cardamine bulbifera and Neottia nidus-avis are the diagnostic species of Fagetalia sylvatica. Two prominent species of this association are Cyclamen coum var. caucasica and Paris incompleta which are the diagnostic species of Pino-Piceetalia orientalis. Quercetea Pubescentis are represented by Doronicum orientale, Tanacetum parthenium, and Cephalanthera rubra. Rhododendro-Fagetum orientalis and Querco-Fagetea are also represented in this association. Myosotis alpestris, Luzula forsteri, and Brachypodim sylvaticum are most prominent species in herb layer of Querco-Fagetea. F. orientalis forests are also found in inner parts of river valleys. In Kızılırmak valley, Galio odorati-Fagetum orientalis (Özen and Kılınç 2002) is found from 1250 to 1500 m. F. orientalis, Lathyrus aureus, Galium odoratum, and Melica uniflora are diagnostic species of that association. This association comprises two subassociations. A. nordmanniana subsp. bornmuelleriana, Pyrola media, Moneses uniflora, and Orthilia secunda are differential species of Abietetosum bornmuellerianae, while Vicia crocea, Poa pratensis, and Astragalus glycyphyllos subsp. glycyphylloides are differential species of Vicietosum croceae. Carpinus betulus, Lonicera caucasica subsp. orientalis, Crataegus tanacetifolia, Cyclamen coum var. coum, and Lathyrus laxiflorus subsp. laxiflorus are diagnostic species of Carpino betuli–Acerion hyrcani alliance. Querco cerridis–Carpinetalia orientalis is represented by Euonymus latifolius subsp. latifolius, Sorbus torminalis var. torminalis, Knautia involucrata, Dorycnium pentaphyllum subsp. herbaceum, and Primula vulgaris subsp. vulgaris. Vicia cracca subsp. gerardi, Sorbus umbellata var. umbellata, and Doronicum orientale are diagnostic species of Querco pseudocerridis–Cedretalia libani order. Quercetea pubescentis class, Fagetalia sylvaticae, and Rhododendro pontici–Fagetalia orientalis order are also represented and their floristic composition is similar to the other F. orientalis associations. This strata also penetrated the inner parts. For example, Crataego microphyllae–Carpinetum betuli (Cansaran and Aydogdu 2001) is found around Egerli Mountain (Amasya city) from 1000 to 1230 m. Diagnostic species of this association is Carpinus betulus, Crataegus microphylla, Prunus spinosa subsp. dasyphylla, Echinops galaticus, and Achillea millefolium subsp. pannonica. The floristic composition is similar to Populo tremulae–Quercetum syspirensis (Cansaran and Aydogdu 2001; Fig. 9.4).

Fig. 9.4

Rhododendro-Fagetum orientalis. (Kutbay and Kılınc 1995)

F. orientalis forests are also found in inner parts of Central Black Sea Region where oceanic climate is seen. Euonymo verrucosi–Fagetum orientalis (Cansaran et al. 2010) is found around Borabay Lake (Amasya city) and diagnostic species are Euonymus verrucosus Scop. Draba rigida Willd. var. rigida, Symphytum bornmuelleri Bucknall, Melampyrum arvense L. var. arvense, Epimedium pubigerum (DC.) Morr. & Decne, and Heracleum platytaenium Boiss. Carpino betuli–Acerion hyrcani alliance is represented by Carpino betuli–Acerion hyrcani, Cyclamen coum Miller var. coum, Asperula involucrata Wahlenb. Querco cerridis–Carpinetalia orientalis order is represented by Trifolium pannonicum Jacq. subsp. elongatum (Willd.) Zoh., Coronilla varia L. subsp. varia, Lathyrus aureus (Stev.) Brandza, Vicia cracca L. subsp. stenophylla Vel., Viburnum lantana L., and Cephalanthera rubra (L.) L.M.C. Richard are the diagnostic species of Quercetea pubescentis class. The most diagnostic species of Querco-Fagetea class are Rubus hirtus Waldst. & Kit., Lapsana communis L. subsp. intermedia (Bieb.) Hayek, and Geum urbanum L.

P. sylvestris forests also belong to Euxine strata. These forests are characterized by Daphno pontica–Pinetum sylvestris (Ekim and Akman 1991) association which includes tree, shrub, and herb layers (Fig. 9.5).

Fig. 9.5

Daphno pontica–Pinetum sylvestris. (Ekim and Akman 1991)

Carpinus orientalis subsp. orientalis, Geranium asphodeloides subsp. asphodeloides, and Polygala supina are diagnostic species of Querco-Carpinetalia orientalis. H. orientalis, Lathyrus laxiflorus subsp. laxiflorus, and Cyclamen coum var. coum are diagnostic species for Carpino-Acerion. Pino-Piceetalia orientalis and Rhododendro-Fagetalia orientalis are represented by a single species, namely A. nordmanniana subsp. bornmuelleriana and Rubus hirtus, respectively. Pinus. nigra subsp. pallasiana, Pyracantha coccinea, Ligustrum vulgare, and Trifolium pannonicum subsp. elongatum are diagnostic species of Quercetea Pubescentis. Querco-Fagetea are represented by Primula vulgaris subsp. sibthorpii, Salvia forskahlei, Fragaria vesca, Brachypodium sylvaticum, and Teucrium chamaedrys subsp. chamaedrys. P. sylvestris forests are also distributed in inner parts of Central Black Sea Region like F. orientalis forests. These forests is also found in Dutman Mountain around Alacam between 1000-1400 m in iner parts of Central Black Sea Region and represented by Abieti-Pinetum sylvestris association (Özen and Kılınç 1995). P. sylvestris, Ranunculus buhsei Boiss, Juniperus communis subsp. alpina, Daphne pontica L., Crepis macropus Boiss & Heldr., and Pyrola media Swartz are diagnostic species of Ranunculo buhsei–Pinetum sylvestris (Karaer et al. 1999) association. This association occurred between 1350 and 1480 m. Carpino-Acerion alliance is represented by Asperula involucrata, Lathyrus laxiflorus, L. aureus, Tanacetum poteriifolium, and H. orientalis. Floristic composition of Quercetea Pubescentis is similar to Daphno pontica–Pinetum sylvestris association except for Euonymus verrucosus and Sorbus torminalis. Floristic composition of Rhododendro-Fagetalia orientalis and Querco-Fagetae is very similar to Daphno pontica–Pinetum sylvestris association. P. sylvestris forests also formed closed canopies around Kızılırmak valley at 1600 m. The diagnostic species of Rumi scutati–Pinetum hamatae (Korkmaz et al. 2011) association are P. sylvestris var. hamata, Juniperus communis var. saxatilis, Myosotis lithospermifolia, Rumex scutatus, and Potentilla speciosa subsp. speciosa. Chamaecytisus pygmaeus and Ranunculus illyricus subsp. illyricus are diagnostic species of Carpino betuli–Acerion hyrcani alliance. Bunium microcarpum subsp. bourgaei, Geranium macrostylum, and Genista lydia var. lydia are some of the diagnostic species of Querco pseudocerridis–Cedretalia libani order. Querco cerridis–Carpinetalia orientalis order, Quercetea pubescentis class, and Rhododendro pontici-Fagetalia orientalis order and Fagetalia sylvaticae order are also represented by several species and their floristic compositions are very similar to the other associations. Astragalus squalidus, Thymus praecox subsp. jankae var. jankae, Poa bulbosa, Stachys iberica subsp. iberica var. iberica, Cynoglossum montanum, and Melica ciliata subsp. ciliata are some of the diagnostic species of Astragalo microcephali–Brometea tomentelli class. The representation of Astragalo microcephali–Brometea tomentelli indicates the effects of continental climate in P. sylvestris forests along stream valleys. P. sylvestris also penetrates the inner parts of Central Black Sea Region between 1200 and 1700 m in subalpine region. Petrorhagio olympicae–Pinetum sylvestris (Cansaran and Aydogdu 2001) is found between 1400 and 1500 m. P. sylvestris, Juniperus communis subsp. alpina, Petrorhagia alpina subsp. olympica, and Lathyrus tukhtensis are diagnostic species of that association. The floristic composition of Carpino betuli–Acerion hyrcani alliance, Querco cerridis–Carpinetalia orientalis order, and Quercetea pubescentis and steppic Astragalo microcephali–Brometea tomentelli are very similar to that of the other P. sylvestris associations. The other subalpine P. sylvestris association is Lathyro tukthensis–Pinetum sylvestris (Cansaran et al. 2010) association. Carpino betuli–Acerion hyrcani alliance, Querco cerridis–Carpinetalia orientalis order, Quercetea pubescentis class, and Querco-Fagetea class are represented by several species.

In southern slopes, Euxine strata is characterized by P. nigra subsp. pallasiana forests and different associations are formed. Genisto tinctorae–Pinetum nigrae (Kutbay and Kılınc 1995) is widespread at high altitudes around Samsun city from 850 to 1150 m (Fig. 9.6).

Fig. 9.6

Genisto tinctorae–Pinetum nigrae. (Kutbay and Kılınc 1995)

Carpino-Acerion is represented by H. orientalis, Viola siehana, and Lathyrus laxiflorus subsp. laxiflorus. Carpinus orietalis subsp. orientalis, Argyrolobium biebersteinii, Polygala supina, and Dorycnium pentaphyllum subsp. anatolicum are the diagnostic species of Querco-Carpinetalia orientalis. Quercetea Pubescentis is represented by Juniperus oxycedrus subsp. oxycedrus, Acer campestre subsp. campestre, Ligustrum vulgare, Sorbus torminalis var. pinnatifida, Hypericum perforatum, Cornus mas, and Cotinus coggyria. Cisto-Micromerietea class belonging to Mediterranean region is also represented by Origanum vulgare subsp. vulgare, Salvia tomentosa, and Teucrium polium. This shows that Mediterranean climate can be penetrated to high altitudes in Black Sea Region and it is impossible to separate different vegetation layers in some cases (Kutbay and Kılınc 1995). Rhododendro-Fagetalia orientalis is represented by Ilex colchica, Rhododendron luteum, Daphne pontica, and Salvia forskahlei. F. orientalis, A. nordmanniana subsp. bornmuelleriana, Crataegus monogyna subsp. monogyna, P. sylvestris, Hedera helix, Cardamine bulbifera, Primula vulgaris subsp. sibthorpii, Clinopodium vulgare subsp. arundanum, Salvia glutinosa, Geranium robertianum, Lapsana communis subsp. intermedia, Fragaria vesca, Neottia nidus-avis, and Sanicula europaea are diagnostic species of Querco-Fagetea. In inner parts of Central Black Sea Region, P. nigra subsp. pallasiana forest is represented by Astragalo aucheri–Pinetum pallasianae (Karaer et al. 1999) around Erbaa from 1000 to 1100 m and Junipero-Pinetum nigrae association in Kunduz Forests, Vezirköprü (Özen and Kılınç 2002). Characteristic and differential species of the association are Pinus nigra subsp. pallasiana, Juniperus oxycedrus subsp. oxycedrus and Dorycnium pentaphyllum subsp. anatolicum. Characteristic species of different syntaxonomic units are found in that association. Rhododendro-Fagetalia orientalis, Quercetea ilicis, Quercetea pubescentis and Querco-Carpinetalia orientalis are represented in Junipero-Pinetum nigrae. The representation of Cisto-Micromerietea indicates antropogenic impact (Özen and Kılınç 2002).The floristic composition of Astragalo aucheri -Pinetum pallasianae is different from Genisto tinctorae–Pinetum nigrae and it has a steppic character. Steppic Astragalo-Brometea class is represented by Hypericum lydium, Linaria coriifolia, Fibigia eriocalycina, Polygala pruinosa, Minuartia anatolica var. anatolica, and Pilosella hoppeana. Jurinea consanguinea, Silene supina subsp. pruinosa, and Salvia cryptantha are diagnostic species of steppic Onobrychido-Thymetalia leucostomi order. Querco–Carpinetalia orientalis order and Carpino-Acerion alliance are also represented and their floristic compositions are similar to Genisto tinctorae–Pinetum nigrae. In Kızılırmak valley, Trifolio canescentis–Pinetum caramanicae (Korkmaz et al. 2011) is found between 1100 and 1250 m. Pinus nigra subsp. pallasiana var. caramanica, Q. pubescens, Trifolium canescens, Rubus canescens var. canescens, Cistus laurifolius, and Polygala anatolica are diagnostic species. Carpinus betulus, Tanacetum poteriifolium, Lathyrus tukhtensis, and Cirsium hypoleucum are diagnostic species of Carpino betuli–Acerion hyrcani alliance. Vicia cracca subsp. stenophylla, Doronicum orientale, Sorbus umbellata var. umbellata, and Genista lydia var. lydia are diagnostic species of Querco pseudocerridis–Cedretalia libani order. Epipactis condensata, and Limodorum abortivum are some of the diagnostic species of Quercetea pubescentis class. Polygonatum multiflorum and Neottia nidus-avis are character species of Fagetalia sylvaticae order. Querco cerridis–Carpinetalia orientalis order and Querco-Fagetea class are also represented by several species which are very similar to the other P. nigra associations. Astragalo microcephali–Brometea tomentelli class is represented by several species, namely Anthemis tinctoria var. pallida, Galium verum subsp. glabrescens Koeleria cristata, and Alyssum murale var. murale. The floristic composition of Trifolio canescentis–Pinetum caramanicae (Korkmaz et al. 2011) includes Euxinian, Mediterranean, and steppe species because stream valleys have been influenced by oceanic, continental, and Mediterranean climates. Pinus nigra J.F. Arnold subsp. var. caramanica (Loudon) Rehder has also formed associations in inner parts of Central Black Sea Region above 1000 m. For example, Chamaecytiso pygmaei–Pinetum pallasianae (Cansaran and Aydogdu 2001) is found between 1230 and 1280 m. Pinus nigra subsp. pallasiana, Chamaecytisus pygmaeus, and Juniperus oxycedrus subsp. oxycedrus are the diagnostic species of that association. Carpino betuli–Acerion hyrcani alliance is represented by Carpinus betulus, Lathyrus tukhtensis, Tanacetum poteriifolium, Cyclamen coum var. coum, and Lonicera caucasica subsp. orientalis. Diagnostic species of Querco cerridis–Carpinetalia orientalis order and Quercetea pubescentis class are similar to that of the other P. nigra subsp. pallasiana associations. Steppic Astragalo microcephali–Brometea tomentelli class is represented by Festuca jeanpertii subsp. jeanpertii, Anthemis tinctoria var. tinctoria Helianthemum nummularium subsp. nummularium, Teucrium chamaedrys subsp. chamaedrys. Galium verum subsp. verum and Alyssum murale var. murale. One of the most diagnostic P. nigra subsp. pallasiana association is Digitalido lamarckii–Pinetum caramanicae (Cansaran et al. 2010). Carpino betuli–Acerion hyrcani alliance, Querco cerridis–Carpinetalia orientalis order, and Quercetea pubescentis class are represented by several species like Lathyro tukthensis–Pinetum sylvestris (Cansaran et al. 2010) association. Querco-Fagetea class is also represented.

Oceanic climate can be penetrated in inner parts of Central Black Sea Region. Crataego microphyllae–Carpinetum betuli (Cansaran and Aydogdu 2001) is found between 1000 and 1230 m. Carpinus betulus, Crataegus microphylla, Prunus spinosa subsp. dasyphylla, Echinops galaticus, and Achillea millefolium subsp. pannonica are diagnostic species of this association. Floristic composition composed of the diagnostic species of Carpino betuli–Acerion hyrcani alliance, Querco cerridis–Carpinetalia orientalis order, Quercetea pubescentis, and Astragalo microcephali–Brometea tomentelli classes and diagnostic species of those syntaxonomic units are similar to those of the other associations. In more moist parts of inner parts of Central Black Sea Region, Populo tremulae–Quercetum syspirensis (Cansaran and Aydogdu 2001) association is also found from 1275 to 1350 m. Quercus macranthera subsp. syspirensis and Populus tremula are diagnostic species of that association. Diagnostic species of Carpino betuli–Acerion hyrcani alliance, Querco cerridis–Carpinetalia orientalis order, Quercetea pubescentis and Astragalo microcephali–Brometea tomentelli classes are represented.

A peculiar characteristic of Central Black Sea Region is the penetrance of Mediterranean climate to the inner parts. Mediterranean maquis and phrygana vegetation occur from sea level to 500 m. However, Mediterranean-type vegetation is also found above 1000 m in inner parts, especially along stream valleys (Kutbay and Kılınc 1995; Cansaran and Aydogdu, 2001; Karaer et al. 2010). For example, Trifolio hirti-Cistetum laurifolii (Cansaran and Aydogdu 2001) is found around Amasya city from 1000 to 1050 m. Cistus laurifolius, Trifolium hirtum, Medicago coronata, Genista tinctoria, Lathyrus sphaericus, Psoralea bituminosa, and Scutellaria salviifolia are diagnostic species. Diagnostic species of Carpino betuli–Acerion hyrcani alliance, Querco cerridis–Carpinetalia orientalis order, Quercetea pubescentis, Astragalo microcephali–Brometea tomentelli, and Querco–Fagetea class are represented in that association (Cansaran and Aydogdu 2001). In inner parts of Central Black Sea Region, it is also possible to see the effects of Mediterranean climate even in high altitudes and Mediterranean-type vegetation occurred above 1000 m. Trifolio hirti–Cistetum laurifolii (Cansaran and Aydogdu 2001) is found between 1000 and 1050 m. Diagnostic species are Cistus laurifolius, Trifolium hirtum, Medicago coronata, Genista tinctoria, Lathyrus sphaericus, Psoralea bituminosa, and Scutellaria salviifolia. Diagnostic species of Carpino betuli–Acerion hyrcani alliance, Querco cerridis–Carpinetalia orientalis order, Quercetea pubescentis, and Astragalo microcephali–Brometea tomentelli classes are represented. This also shows the difficulty of drawing a border between different vegetation types in Central Black Sea Region because different climate types are mixed (Kutbay and Kılınc 1995).

In inner parts of Central Black Sea Region, continental climate is seen. Steppe vegetation is found above 1000 m.

Steppe vegetation is seen especially along stream valleys. For example, Daphno oleoidis–Astragaletum angustifolii (Korkmaz et al. 2011) belongs to Mountainous Prepontic Belt and found in Kargı (Çorum city) between 1600 and 1700 m. Astragalus angustifolius subsp. angustifolius var. angustifolius, Daphne oleoides subsp. oleoides, Marrubium cephalanthum, Euphorbia erythrodon, Euphorbia anacampseros var. anacampseros, and Polygala alpestris are diagnostic species of that association. Helianthemum nummularium subsp. tomentosum, Thymus spyleus subsp. rosulans, Teucrium chamaedrys subsp. chamaedrys, Myosotis alpestris subsp. alpestris, and Poa alpina subsp. fallax are diagnostic species of Onobrychido armenae–Thymetalia leucostomi order. Astragalo microcephali–Brometea tomentelli class is represented by Asperula nitida subsp. subcapitellata, Plantago holosteum, Hypericum orientale, Veronica orientalis subsp. orientalis, Hypericum linarioides, Erysimum smyrnaeum, Iberis taurica, Ajuga chamaepitys subsp. chia var. chia, and Helianthemum canum. Quercetea pubescentis class is represented by only a few species (Bunium microcarpum subsp. bourgaei, Carex halleriana, and Rubus canescens var. glabratus). Linario corifoliae–Astragaletum microcephali (Korkmaz et al. 2011) is found around Kargı and Osmancık (Çorum city) between 550 and 1300 m. Astragalus microcephalus Callipeltis cucullaria and Linaria corifolia are diagnostic species of that association. This association is composed of two subassociations, namely stipetosum arabico and alyssetosum desertorum. Stipa arabica, Onosma isauricum, Erysimum crassipes, and Silene subconica and Alyssum desertorum var. desertorum, Morina persica var. persica, Bromus benekenii, and Cruciata pedemontana are diagnostic species of stipetosum arabico and alyssetosum desertorum, respectively. Lappula barbata, Ziziphora tenuior, Taeniatherum caput-medusae subsp. crinitum, and Ziziphora taurica subsp. taurica are diagnostic species of Astragalo karamasici-Gypsophilion eriocalycis alliance. Onobrychido armenae-Thymetalia leucostomi order is represented by several species, namely Astragalus leucothrix, Acantholimon acerosum var. acerosum, and Nepeta nuda subsp. albiflora. Logfia arvensis, Alkanna orientalis var. orientalis, Apera intermedia, Centaurea urvillei subsp. urvillei, and Hypericum origanifolium are some of the diagnostic species of Astragalo microcephali–Brometea tomentelli class. Steppe vegetation is also widespread in inner parts of Central Black Sea Region where continental climate is dominant. For example, Stachyi byzantinae–Astragaletum microcephali (Cansaran and Aydogdu 2001) is found between 1050 and 1150 m in Eregli Mountain, Amasya city. Astragalus microcephalus, Stachys byzantina, Carduus acanthodies subsp. acanthoides, Elymus repens subsp. elongatiformis, Peucedanum palimbioides, Alkanna orientalis var. orientalis, Astrodaucus orientalis, Verbascum caudatum, Paracaryum ancyritanum, and Astragalus albifolius are diagnostic species of that association. Teucrium chamaedrys subsp. chamaedrys, Marrubium parviflorum subsp. parviflorum, and Phlomis armeniaca are diagnostic species of Phlomido armeniacae–Astragalion microcephali alliance. Scabiosa argentea, Silene supina subsp. pruinosa, and Alyssum pateri subsp. pateri are diagnostic species of Onobrychido armenae–Thymetalia leucostomi order. Scutellaria orientalis subsp. pinnatifida, Acantholimon acerosum (Willd.) Boiss. var. acerosum, and Thymus sipyleus subsp. rosulans are some of the diagnostic species of Astragalo microcephali–Brometea tomentelli class. In subalpine region of Amasya city, steppic Saponario prostratae–Astragaletum microcephali (Cansaran et al. 2010) association is found. Diagnostic species of this association are Astragalus microcephalus Willd., Saponaria prostrata Willd. var. prostrata, Paracaryum ancyritanum Boiss., Cruciata laevipes Opiz, Paracaryum paphlagonicum (Bornm.) R. Mill, and Astragalus acmophyllus Bunge. Phlomido armeniacae–Astragalion microcephalit alliance is characterized by Teucrium chamaedrys L. var. chamaedrys. Linaria corifolia Desf., Anthemis tinctoria L. var. tinctoria, Lappula barbata (Bieb.) Gürke, and Centaurea virgata Lam. are diagnostic species of Onobrychido armenae–Thymetalia lecostomi order. The most diagnostic species of Astragalo microcephali–Brometea tomentelli are Herniaria incana Lam., Veronica multifida L., Cruciata taurica (Pallas ex Willd.) Ehrend., Centaurea triumfettii All., and Anthemis cretica L. subsp. anatolica (Boiss.) Grierson. Pilosello isauricae–Marrubietum astracanici (Cansaran et al. 2010) is found between 1400 and 1570 m. Marrubium astracanicum Jacq. subsp. astracanicum, Pilosella hoppeana (Schultes) C.H. & F.W. Schultz subsp. isaurica Hub.-Mor., Onobrychis bornmuelleri Freyn, and Erysimum thyrsoideum Boiss. subsp. ponticum (Hausskn. & Bornm.) Cullen are the diagnostic species of that association. The same syntaxonomical units with Saponario prostratae–Astragaletum microcephali (Cansaran et al. 2010) are found. For example, Anthemis tinctoria L. var. tinctoria and Allium scorodoprasum L. subsp. rotundum (L.) Stearn are diagnostic for of Onobrychido armenae–Thymetalia lecostomi order. Polygala supina Schreb., Helianthemum canum (L.) Baumg., Ziziphora tenuior L., Nepeta nuda L. var. nuda, and Poa bulbosa L. are diagnostic species of Astragalo microcephali–Brometea tomentelli class. Sideritido dichotomae–Daphnetum oleoidis association is found in subalpine region around Amasya city above 1400 m. Daphne oleoides Schreb. subsp. oleoides, Sideritis dichotoma Huter, Thymus pubescens Boiss & Kotschy ex Čk., Morina persica L. var. decussatifolia S. Erik & N. Demirkuş, and Astragalus densifolius Lam. subsp. amasiensis (Freyn & Bornm.) Z. Aytaç & Ekim are diagnostic species of that association. Allium scorodoprasum L. subsp. rotundum (L.) Stearn, Centaurea virgata Lam., and Alyssum sibiricum Willd. are diagnostic species of Onobrychido armenae–Thymetalia lecostomi. Astragalo microcephali–Brometea tomentelli class is characterized by several species, namely Acantholimon acerosum var. acerosum, Festuca valesiaca Schleicher ex Gaudin, Sanguisorba minor Scop. var. muricata (Spach) Briq., and Koeleria cristata (L.) Pers.

9.3.1 Probable Effects of Climatic Change

Ozturk et al. (2010) stated that global climate change is an integrated system of several atmospheric phenomena and their products. It has been expected that average global air temperature has increased by about 0.8 °C and this will take place by the year 2100. This phenomenon is called as “global warming.” However, local climate in different geographical areas may become warmer and drier, cooler and wetter, or remain unchanged (Ozturk et al. 2010).

It has been found that oak forests in Europe have declined under conditions of global warming mainly due to oomycete root pathogen Phytophthora cinnamomi and the survival and degree of root disease caused by this fungus seem likely to be enhanced (Brasier and Scott 1994). Turkish forests also have a global relevance because Turkey has a unique geographical location. As a result of this, Turkey will play an important role under global climate change scenarios. First of all, Turkey may have an important phytogeographical role as a reservoir for species transfer both within Turkey and from Turkey to Europe and protect key gene pool reserves (Colak and Rotherham 2006).

Annual mean temperature will increase around 3–4 °C in the Central Black Sea Region, and reductions are expected in summer precipitation up to − 10 % (ec.europa.eu/agriculture/analysis/external). After 1990’s precipitation regime was changed in Black Sea Region and uniform rainfall distribution was not observed (Aslan et al. 2005).

Forest vegetation is constantly disturbed as a result of clear-cutting and overgrazing in Central Black Sea Region (Karaer et al. 2010). As a result of the combined effects of the mentioned anthropogenic factors and global warming, the border of steppe vegetation may be extended and replaced by forest vegetation in Central Black Sea Region, especially in inner parts of the region (Fig. 9.7).

Fig. 9.7

Steppe vegetation in inner parts of Central Black Sea Region

Conclusion

Central Black Sea Region has a unique vegetation because different climate types are mixed. Mediterranean, oceanic, and continental climates are seen. Mediterranean climate is seen from the sea level to 500 m. However, Mediterranean climate is also penetrated above 1000 m and along stream valleys. Oceanic climate is dominant in whole region. Continental climate is seen in inner parts. As a result of this, Euxine, Mediterranean, and steppe vegetation types are found. Different syntaxonomical units are found in associations belonging to these vegetation types. Syntaxonomical classification and interpretation of the vegetation of Central Black Sea region are too difficult. In addition to this, the vegetation of Central Black Sea Region may probably be changed due to anthropogenic factors and global warming. Owing to these factors, forest vegetation will be disturbed and the border of steppe and Mediterranean vegetation types may be extended.