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1 Introduction

People who do not live in coastal communities might occasionally mumble that the sea level is always changing and what the big deal is. Compared to other instant extremely impactful and noticeable events like hurricanes, droughts, wildfires, flooding, or snow storms, sea level rise sounds like a very remote thing and not realistic threats for today. On the contrary, it is a true pressing concern in the context of global climate change and the fact that 71% of the Earth’s surface is covered in water. As the oceans absorb heat due to global warming (Masson-Delmotte et al. 2018, 2022), seawater expands and increases in volume. This process, known as thermal expansion, contributes to the overall rise in sea level (Mimura 2013). The expansion of seawater is driven by the increase in ocean temperatures, which is primarily attributed to the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The melting of glaciers and ice sheets is another significant contributor. As global temperatures rise, ice sheets in the Arctic and Antarctica experience accelerated melting, leading to the discharge of freshwater into the oceans. This influx of freshwater contributes to the overall rise in sea level. In addition to glaciers and ice sheets, the loss of land-based ice from mountain ranges, such as the Himalayas and the Andes, also contributes to sea level rise. The melting of these land-based ice bodies, including glaciers and snowpack, leads to the runoff of water into the oceans, further adding to sea level rise. Changes in ocean circulation patterns and dynamics can also influence sea level rise (Cazenave and Nerem 2004). Factors such as changes in wind patterns, ocean currents, and the redistribution of heat can affect regional sea level variations. For instance, coastal areas can experience relative sea level rise due to changes in ocean circulation, which may exacerbate the impacts of global sea level rise in certain regions. Rising sea levels increase the vulnerability of coastal regions to extreme events and storm surges. As sea levels rise, the same storm events can lead to higher storm surges, causing more frequent and severe coastal flooding. This poses significant risks to coastal infrastructure, ecosystems, and human populations.

Sea level rise has already put low-lying island nations into vulnerability, such as the Maldives and Tuvalu (Jaschik 2014). These nations are already experiencing the effects of rising sea levels, including coastal erosion, saltwater intrusion into freshwater resources, and the loss of habitable land. These impacts have significant social, economic, and environmental consequences. Rising sea levels contribute to increased coastal erosion, where the shoreline retreats due to the encroachment of the sea. The erosive forces of waves and currents are intensified, leading to the loss of beaches, coastal vegetation, and even land. This erosion not only affects the natural environment but also threatens the infrastructure and settlements located along the coast. As sea levels rise, saltwater can infiltrate freshwater resources, such as groundwater aquifers and surface water bodies. This intrusion of saltwater contaminates the limited freshwater sources, making them unsuitable for drinking, irrigation, and agricultural purposes. The intrusion also impacts coastal ecosystems, affecting the flora and fauna that depend on freshwater habitats. With the encroachment of the sea, low-lying island nations face the loss of habitable land. As the coastline recedes, communities are forced to relocate, leading to displacement and potential loss of cultural heritage. The loss of habitable land also has economic implications as it affects tourism, agriculture, and other sectors that rely on coastal resources. The impacts of sea level rise on low-lying island nations extend beyond physical changes. These nations often have high population densities, making it challenging to accommodate the displaced communities. The loss of land, infrastructure, and livelihoods can lead to social and economic disruptions, including increased poverty, unemployment, and social inequality. Meanwhile, rising sea levels pose significant threats to coastal ecosystems, including coral reefs, mangroves, and seagrass beds (Keyzer et al. 2020). These ecosystems provide essential habitat for marine biodiversity, act as natural buffers against storms and erosion, and contribute to carbon sequestration. The loss and degradation of these ecosystems have far-reaching ecological consequences, impacting fish populations, coastal protection, and overall ecosystem health.

The major role of science now is for increasing our awareness and understanding. Accurate and comprehensive monitoring of sea level rise is essential for understanding its magnitude and trends. Scientists use various techniques such as tide gauges, satellite altimetry, and GPS to measure sea level change (Adebisi et al. 2021). This data provides a baseline for assessing the impacts of sea level rise and monitoring the effectiveness of mitigation measures. Scientists develop computer models that simulate and predict future sea level rise scenarios based on different factors such as greenhouse gas emissions, ice melt, and ocean dynamics (Nicholls et al. 2014). These models help policymakers and coastal planners make informed decisions about adaptation strategies, coastal defense systems, and land-use planning. Climate science helps understand the drivers of sea level rise, particularly the contributions from global warming and melting ice caps and glaciers. By studying climate patterns, ocean currents, and ice dynamics, scientists can improve projections of future sea level rise and inform policy decisions. Science helps identify areas at high risk of sea level rise impacts, such as coastal erosion, flooding, and saltwater intrusion. Vulnerability assessments use scientific data to prioritize adaptation efforts, protect critical infrastructure, and ensure the resilience of coastal communities. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports provide policymakers with comprehensive assessments of the scientific understanding (Church et al. 2013). These reports serve as a foundation for international climate negotiations and the development of adaptation and mitigation strategies.

However, when coming to the actions, the current research is still falling short of guiding our efforts and policies in coastal communities and island nations. In other words, most research results are just projections without actionable information. Nonactionable science could lead to inadequate or delayed implementation of adaptation measures, leaving coastal communities exposed to the risks of sea level rise and can result in increased vulnerability to coastal flooding, erosion, and saltwater intrusion. Without actionable science, coastal regions may experience significant economic losses due to damage to property, infrastructure, and businesses without any ability to adapt or survive. The costs associated with rebuilding and repairing affected areas can be substantial and can strain local economies and resources. Nonactionable science can lead to the degradation and loss of valuable coastal ecosystems, including wetlands, mangroves, and coral reefs. These ecosystems serve as natural buffers against sea level rise, providing coastal protection, maintaining biodiversity, and supporting important fisheries and tourism industries. Nonactionable science can exacerbate existing social and environmental injustices, disproportionately affecting marginalized and vulnerable communities. Lack of access to actionable information and inadequate consideration of social equity can lead to unequal distribution of resources, exacerbating inequalities and placing disadvantaged communities at greater risk. In many cases, low-income communities and communities of color, who often reside in low-lying areas, face higher risks from sea level rise due to historical patterns of social and environmental injustice. Without actionable science guiding equitable adaptation strategies, these communities may be further marginalized and left without adequate support.

The chapter will reexamine the motivation, questions, current practice and policies, and what science can go from now surrounding the rising sea level. I hope to provide a comprehensive understanding of the contributions of science to addressing sea level rise, while highlighting the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration, policy integration, and stakeholder engagement in achieving sustainable and resilient coastal communities. It will present a collection of real-world case studies and best practices that demonstrate successful applications of science in addressing sea level rise. These examples highlight innovative approaches, community-based initiatives, and international collaborations that have effectively tackled the challenges posed by rising sea levels. It will also explore science-based approaches to adapting to sea level rise. It highlights the importance of coastal management strategies, such as beach nourishment, seawalls, and managed retreat, in reducing the impacts of rising sea levels on human settlements and ecosystems.

2 Motivation and Goal of Actions

Common countering activities to address the challenges posed by rising sea levels include implementing measures such as coastal defense systems, land-use planning, adaptation strategies, and international cooperation. The strong motivation is to best mitigate or adapt to its influences on coastal communities, ecosystems, and infrastructure. The goal is to reduce vulnerability, protect lives and property, and ensure the long-term sustainability of coastal regions.

2.1 Glacier Cycles and Sea Level Rise in Earth History

Glacier cycles mean the periodic expansion and retreat of glaciers over long periods of time (Lambeck and Chappell 2001; Lambeck et al. 2002). These cycles are primarily driven by changes in Earth’s climate, specifically variations in temperature and precipitation. Understanding glacier cycles is important for studying past climate change and its implications for sea level rise, water resources, and landscape formation (Gildor and Tziperman 2001). Glacial periods, also known as ice ages, are characterized by the growth and expansion of glaciers. During these periods, temperatures are significantly colder, and ice accumulates in regions where snowfall exceeds melting. This results in the formation of large ice sheets and glaciers in polar and high-altitude regions. Interglacial periods occur between glacial periods and are marked by a general warming of the climate. During these periods, glaciers begin to retreat as melting exceeds accumulation. Interglacial periods are generally shorter in duration compared to glacial periods. The timing and intensity of glacier cycles are influenced by Milankovitch cycles (Bennett 1990), which are changes in Earth’s orbit and axial tilt (Lourens 2021). These cycles occur over thousands of years and include eccentricity, obliquity, and precession. These orbital variations impact the amount and distribution of solar radiation reaching the Earth’s surface, which in turn affects the climate and glacier dynamics. Glaciers move under the influence of gravity. As snow accumulates and compacts over time, it transforms into ice. The weight of the ice causes it to flow downslope, carving valleys, and eroding the landscape. Glaciers can advance or retreat depending on the balance between accumulation (snowfall) and ablation (melting and sublimation). The North American Cordillera has revealed multiple glacial advances and retreats over the past million years. These cycles have shaped the landscapes of regions such as the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada. Similarly, the study of ice cores from Antarctica and Greenland has provided detailed records of past climate and glacial fluctuations (Benn and Evans 2014).

Lambeck et al. (2014) studied that there were periods of significant sea level rise caused by the melting of ice sheets and glaciers. One of the most prominent events was the Pleistocene–Holocene transition, which occurred approximately 11,000 years ago (Rosen and Rivera-Collazo 2012). This period marked the end of the last major glacial period and the beginning of the current interglacial period. As the Earth’s climate warmed, massive ice sheets that covered large parts of North America, Europe, and Asia began to melt rapidly. This resulted in a substantial increase in global sea levels, which rose by approximately 120 m (400 ft) during the deglaciation period (the past 20,000 years), with an average rate of around 1 cm (0.4 inches) per year (Clark and Mix 2002; Lambeck et al. 2014). Evidence for sea level rise during the Pleistocene–Holocene transition comes from various sources, including sedimentary deposits, coral reefs, and fossilized marine organisms. Scientists analyze sediment cores and drill samples from coastal regions to study the layers of sediment and the types of marine organisms present. Radiocarbon dating and other dating techniques help determine the age of these deposits and provide insight into past sea level changes. One well-studied example of sea level rise in this period is the flooding of the Sundaland region, which includes present-day Indonesia, Malaysia, and parts of Southeast Asia. The melting ice causes sea levels to rise, leading to the submergence of vast coastal areas and the formation of new islands and archipelagos.

2.2 Where Is Rising?

Although sea level rise is a global event and impacts coastal regions worldwide, at present the most impacted regions are low-lying islands, such as Pacific Island nations, coastal areas of Bangladesh, cities with coastal exposure like Miami, Venice, and Shanghai. Most small island developing states (SIDS), including nations in the Caribbean, Indian Ocean, and the Pacific, are highly vulnerable to the impacts that extend beyond physical risks to include socioeconomic and cultural implications. For example, the Barbados Coastal Zone Management Unit has been implementing measures such as beach nourishment and coastal protection to mitigate the effects of sea level rise (Mycoo et al. 2012). Besides, the Arctic is also experiencing the effects of global warming at an accelerated rate, resulting in the melting of polar ice and contributing to rising sea levels, and the coastal communities in Alaska, Canada, and Greenland inside the Arctic Circle are witnessing changes in shoreline erosion, permafrost thaw, and increased coastal flooding (AMAP 2017).

2.3 Who Are Impacted?

People living in coastal communities are among the most directly affected by sea level rise. For example, the residents of the Sundarbans region in Bangladesh, home to millions of people, are exposed to the threat of displacement and loss of livelihoods due to sea level rise (Pethick and Orford 2013). Socioeconomically disadvantaged communities often face disproportionate impacts from sea level rise. These communities may have limited resources and infrastructure to adapt to changing coastal conditions. For example, marginalized communities in coastal regions of the United States, such as in Louisiana and Florida, are at greater risk due to a combination of economic, social, and environmental factors (Nicholls and Cazenave 2010). In addition, indigenous communities, especially those with cultural and historical ties to coastal areas, are at risk from sea level rise. These communities often have deep connections to the land and face potential displacement, loss of cultural heritage sites, and disruption to traditional practices. For instance, indigenous populations in Alaska, such as the Inupiat and Yupik, are experiencing the impacts of coastal erosion and loss of hunting and fishing grounds (Nelson et al. 2007). Economic sectors dependent on coastal regions, such as tourism, fisheries, and agriculture will take the hit. Coastal tourism destinations, like the Florida Keys in the United States or the Maldives, may face declining visitor numbers due to the degradation of coastal ecosystems and infrastructure (Amelung and Nicholls 2014).

2.4 What Can We Do About It?

There are pretty limited things we can do for now, but here are things we can prepare and adapt ourselves to the changes. People can educate themselves and others about the causes and consequences of sea level rise to foster a sense of urgency and understanding. By making sustainable choices in daily life, such as using public transportation, conserving energy, and reducing water consumption, individuals can contribute to mitigating climate change, which is a major driver of sea level rise. Participate in or support local initiatives that aim to protect and restore coastal ecosystems, such as beach clean-ups, dune restoration, and mangrove conservation.

Governments should develop and enforce policies that aim to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and promote renewable energy sources. This can include setting emissions reduction targets, implementing carbon pricing mechanisms, and investing in clean energy infrastructure. Governments can invest in coastal protection measures, such as sea walls, dikes, and beach nourishment, to reduce the impacts of sea level rise. They can also develop comprehensive coastal management plans that account for future sea level rise projections and incorporate nature-based solutions, such as wetland restoration and mangrove conservation. Governments should prioritize the needs of vulnerable communities affected by sea level rise by providing financial assistance, relocation support, and access to resources for adaptation measures.

3 Cutting-Edge Scientific Research and Gaps with Actions

Advancements in renewable energy technologies, such as solar, wind, and hydroelectric power, are promising for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Researchers are exploring ways to enhance the efficiency, affordability, and scalability of renewable energy systems. For instance, offshore wind farms are being developed in coastal areas to harness strong and consistent winds, providing a sustainable source of electricity without emissions (Bilgili et al. 2011). Carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) technologies (Benson and Orr 2008) capture carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from power plants and industrial facilities and store them underground, preventing them from entering the atmosphere. Developing low-carbon transportation systems is critical. Research is focused on electric vehicles (EVs) (Hawkins et al. 2012;Sanguesa et al. 2021), advanced biofuels, and improved public transportation networks. For example, the advancement of EV technology and infrastructure has the potential to significantly reduce emissions from the transportation sector. Sustainable land-use practices, including reforestation, afforestation, and forest conservation, help sequester carbon and mitigate climate change. Research is being conducted to understand the carbon sequestration potential of different ecosystems and identify effective land management strategies. Improving energy efficiency in buildings, industries, and appliances is a key mitigation strategy. Research aims to develop technologies and policies that promote energy conservation and reduce emissions. Smart buildings equipped with energy-efficient systems and advanced monitoring technologies can significantly reduce energy consumption.

4 Research Challenges and Trade-Offs in Real-World Application

4.1 Challenges and Issues Preventing Research Progress

Sea level rise involves complex dynamics, including the interaction between ice sheets, oceans, and land masses (Lenaerts et al. 2019). Understanding these processes and their future trajectories involves dealing with uncertainties. Uncertainties arise from factors such as incomplete understanding of ice sheet behavior, potential feedback mechanisms, and regional variations in sea level rise. Addressing and quantifying these uncertainties is important for effective research and decision-making. Meanwhile, gathering accurate and extensive data on sea level rise is essential for effective research. However, data collection can be challenging due to the remoteness of certain regions, limited monitoring infrastructure, and the need for long-term observations. Inconsistent or incomplete data can hinder the accuracy of projections and impede the development of reliable models. Also, bridging the gap between research findings and policy implementation is critical in responding to sea level rise. While scientific research provides valuable insights, translating those findings into actionable policies and practices can be challenging. Effective policy frameworks, governance structures, and stakeholder engagement are necessary to ensure research informs decision-making and drive appropriate actions.

4.2 Gaps Between Scientists and Impacted Communities

There is often a disconnect between the scientific language used by researchers studying sea level rise and the understanding of the broader community. Complex scientific terminology and technical jargon can make it challenging for community members to comprehend and engage with the information. Indigenous and local communities residing in coastal areas possess valuable knowledge and insights about their environments and the impacts of sea level rise. However, this knowledge is not always effectively integrated into scientific research and decision-making processes. There may be a lack of trust between scientists and impacted communities. Historical experiences, power imbalances, and perceived disconnects between scientific findings and lived experiences can contribute to this trust deficit. Also, there are often disparities in the representation and inclusion of marginalized communities in scientific research and decision-making processes related to sea level rise. This lack of diversity can limit the perspectives and experiences considered in addressing the impacts of sea level rise. Meaningful collaboration between scientists and impacted communities is essential for addressing the challenges of sea level rise. However, there is a gap in the extent of collaboration, with limited opportunities for joint decision-making, co-design of research, and shared knowledge production. By acknowledging these gaps and addressing the underlying issues, we can work toward more inclusive and effective strategies for understanding and responding to the impacts of sea level rise.

4.3 Economic, Social, and Political Challenges to Implementing Solutions

Implementing scientific solutions for sea level rise will inevitably face economic, social, and political challenges. It is a global issue that requires cooperation and collaboration across different jurisdictions and countries. Negotiating agreements, sharing responsibilities, and establishing effective governance mechanisms can be challenging in the context of differing political interests. Coordinating and aligning policies at different levels of government (local, regional, national, international) is required for effective sea level rise mitigation and adaptation. However, political fragmentation and differences in priorities can hinder policy coherence and implementation. Rising sea levels can lead to the displacement of communities living in low-lying coastal areas (Noss 2011). Relocation and resettlement efforts can cause social disruptions, including the loss of cultural heritage and community cohesion. Vulnerable communities, such as those with lower socioeconomic status or marginalized groups, may bear a disproportionate burden of the impacts of sea level rise. Addressing social inequities and ensuring that adaptation strategies consider the needs and concerns of all stakeholders is a high-priority task. Implementing large-scale adaptation and mitigation measures to address sea level rise can be financially demanding. The costs of infrastructure upgrades, coastal protection measures, and relocation efforts can be substantial, posing challenges to funding and resource allocation. Economic activities such as coastal development, tourism, and shipping may be impacted by sea level rise mitigation measures. Balancing the economic interests of industries and communities with the need for sustainable solutions can be a complex task.

4.4 Ethical Considerations During Decision-Making

Ethical decision-making should prioritize the well-being and rights of coastal communities directly impacted by sea level rise. This involves recognizing the social, cultural, and economic significance of these communities and ensuring that their voices are heard in decision-making processes. Respecting the rights and interests of coastal residents is essential for preserving their livelihoods and ensuring their resilience in the face of sea level rise. Ethical decision-making requires addressing environmental justice concerns. This includes ensuring that vulnerable populations, such as low-income communities and marginalized groups, are not disproportionately burdened by the impacts of sea level rise. Environmental justice principles call for the equitable distribution of environmental risks and benefits, access to resources, and the inclusion of marginalized voices in decision-making processes. Sea level rise may result in the displacement of communities residing in low-lying coastal areas. Ethical considerations involve providing support and resources to affected communities during relocation processes, ensuring that their rights are protected, and minimizing social disruptions. Just and fair approaches to relocation should be pursued, taking into account the cultural, historical, and emotional ties that individuals and communities have to their land.

4.5 Balancing Short-Term Versus Long-Term Priorities and Trade-Offs

Balancing short-term and long-term priorities requires considering the environmental impact of response measures. Stakeholders can provide valuable insights into local needs and concerns, ensuring that short-term actions align with long-term goals. Some adaptation strategies, such as hard coastal defenses, may also have negative ecological consequences. It is important to assess the trade-offs between protecting human assets and preserving coastal ecosystems, considering the long-term ecological implications. Participatory approaches, such as community-based planning, facilitate the inclusion of diverse perspectives and help navigate trade-offs. While certain measures may have higher upfront costs, they can provide long-term savings by reducing vulnerability to sea level rise. Cost–benefit analysis and incorporating the concept of discount rates can help evaluate trade-offs between immediate expenses and long-term benefits. Infrastructure decisions, such as constructing buildings, roads, or ports, should account for sea level rise projections and incorporate adaptive design features. Investing in resilient infrastructure can help avoid costly retrofitting or reconstruction in the future. Coastal protection measures such as building sea walls or installing flood gates can provide short-term protection, but long-term plans may need to include managed retreat or ecosystem-based approaches to accommodate rising sea levels sustainably.

5 Ongoing Use Cases and Lessons Learnt

5.1 Coastal Wetland Restoration

Coastal wetland restoration involves the creation and enhancement of wetland areas that have been degraded or lost due to human activities. This may include re-establishing tidal flows, planting native vegetation, and creating suitable habitats for wetland species. For example, the California State Coastal Conservancy has implemented numerous projects to restore coastal wetlands, such as the South Bay Salt Pond Restoration Project in San Francisco Bay (Kurth et al. 2022). Barrier islands protect coastlines from storm surges and erosion and the efforts to restore barrier islands involve building dunes, planting vegetation, and replenishing sand to reinforce the island’s natural protective features. The Coastal Wetlands Planning, Protection and Restoration Act in the United States has funded projects like the Caminada Headland Beach and Dune Restoration in Louisiana to restore and protect barrier islands (Khalil and Raynie 2015). In addition, living shorelines are environmentally friendly alternatives to hard coastal defenses. These projects aim to stabilize shorelines, reduce erosion, and enhance habitats using natural materials such as oyster reefs, marsh grasses, and submerged aquatic vegetation. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has supported various living shoreline projects, including the Napatree Point Conservation Area in Rhode Island (Mayo et al. 2015). Meanwhile, tidal marshes also provide essential habitats, protect coastlines from erosion, and help mitigate climate change by sequestering carbon, and restoration efforts mainly focus on re-establishing tidal flows, removing invasive species, and restoring native vegetation (Brockmeyer et al. 2022).

5.2 Managed Retreat and Land-Use Planning

Managed retreat means a planned and strategic process of moving communities, buildings, and infrastructure away from coastal areas at risk of sea level rise. It recognizes the long-term challenges posed by rising sea levels and aims to ensure the safety and resilience of communities. Managed retreat can take several forms, including voluntary buyouts, relocation, and the restoration of natural coastal buffers. An example of managed retreat is the Staten Island Bluebelt Program in New York City (Gumb et al. 2008), which focuses on acquiring and converting flood-prone properties into green infrastructure and open space. At the same time, land-use planning refers to the careful assessment and regulation of land development to minimize exposure to sea level rise and protect coastal areas. It involves zoning regulations, building codes, and development restrictions aimed at reducing vulnerability and promoting resilience. Land-use planning considers factors such as elevation, flood risk, and ecological values to guide decisions on where and how development should occur, for example, the Coastal Zone Management Act (Chasis 1985), which encourages states to develop comprehensive coastal management programs to address sea level rise and coastal hazards.

5.3 Nature-Based Infrastructure

This means using natural systems and processes as a means to mitigate the impacts of sea level rise. Wetlands, such as salt marshes and mangroves, act as natural buffers that absorb wave energy and reduce the impacts of storm surges. Restoring and protecting these wetland ecosystems can provide valuable coastal protection. For example, the Tidal Marsh and Barrier Beach Restoration Project in San Francisco Bay, California (Stralberg et al. 2011), aims to restore tidal marshes and enhance natural barriers to protect against rising sea levels. Living shorelines are designed to stabilize and protect coastal areas using natural materials, such as vegetation, oyster reefs, and dunes. They offer a more sustainable alternative to hard structures like seawalls. Another example is the Living Shoreline Project in Chesapeake Bay, Maryland (Davis et al. 2006), which combines the planting of native marsh grasses with the creation of oyster reefs to protect shorelines and enhance habitat. Beach nourishment involves adding sand to eroded beaches to restore their width and elevation. This helps to provide a natural buffer against rising sea levels and storm surges (Fig. 7.1). For instance, the Miami-Dade County Beach Erosion Control and Hurricane Protection Project in Florida uses beach nourishment to protect coastal areas and support the tourism industry.

Fig. 7.1
A photo of beach sand dunes from a distance.

Law-protected sand dunes on the beach of Assateague Island state park in Maryland

Full size image

5.4 Climate-Resilient Building Design

Building structures on stilts or raised platforms above the anticipated flood level can minimize the risk of damage from storm surges and rising sea levels. For example, in the Netherlands, the Floating Houses project in Maasbommel features homes designed to float during floods, reducing the potential for property damage (Danilescu 2020). Using flood-resistant materials and construction techniques can also help protect buildings from water damage. This includes using corrosion-resistant materials, waterproofing foundations, and designing flood-resistant building envelopes. The Surry Hills Library and Community Centre in Sydney, Australia, incorporates flood-resistant design features to protect against potential flooding in the area (Malighetti 2011). Implementing effective stormwater management strategies can help mitigate the impacts of sea level rise. This includes designing buildings with green roofs, rain gardens, and permeable surfaces to absorb and manage excess water. The Bullitt Center in Seattle, Washington, is an example of a building that incorporates sustainable stormwater management practices (Sojka et al. 2016). Integrating energy-efficient design principles and renewable energy technologies can reduce reliance on fossil fuels and contribute to climate change mitigation efforts. Energy-efficient buildings help reduce greenhouse gas emissions and minimize the carbon footprint associated with energy consumption. The Edge Building in Amsterdam, the Netherlands, is a sustainable office building that incorporates energy-efficient design elements and renewable energy sources (Mehmood et al. 2019). Adapting existing buildings through retrofitting and repurposing can contribute to climate resilience. This involves upgrading structures to withstand changing environmental conditions and sea level rise. The New York City Department of Parks and Recreation’s Climate-Resilient Retrofit Guidelines provide guidance for retrofitting existing buildings to enhance resilience to climate impacts (Dolman 2021).

6 Vision of Actionable Science in Mitigating Sea Level Rise

As mentioned above, the current main role of science is to enhance our understanding of the physical processes driving sea level rise, such as thermal expansion, melting glaciers, and ice sheet dynamics, such as studying ocean circulation patterns, climate dynamics, and the interactions between the atmosphere, oceans, and ice. Scientists are continually improving their understanding of feedback mechanisms and interactions between various factors influencing sea level rise. This includes studying the dynamics of ice sheets, ocean currents, and land subsidence. By unraveling these complex interactions, scientists can enhance predictions and develop more effective mitigation strategies. By improving our knowledge of these processes, scientists can develop more accurate projections and inform decision-making. Meanwhile, through modeling and simulation, scientists can predict future sea level rise scenarios based on different greenhouse gas emissions scenarios and climate projections. These predictions provide valuable information for planning and decision-making at various scales. For example, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) produces comprehensive reports that assess the latest scientific understanding of sea level rise and its potential impacts. Science can help develop adaptation strategies to mitigate the impacts of sea level rise. This includes identifying vulnerable areas, assessing risks, and designing and implementing measures to protect coastal communities and ecosystems. For instance, coastal engineers and scientists collaborate to design and construct sea walls, levees, and coastal restoration projects to minimize flooding and erosion risks. Science supports the development and promotion of sustainable practices to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and limit further sea level rise. This includes research on renewable energy sources, energy-efficient technologies, and sustainable land and water management practices. For example, promoting renewable energy adoption can help reduce dependence on fossil fuels, thereby mitigating climate change and sea level rise. Addressing sea level rise requires global cooperation and collaboration among scientists, policymakers, and stakeholders. International efforts, such as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (Kyoto Protocol 1997) and the Paris Agreement (Savaresi 2016), aim to foster collaboration and support collective action to mitigate climate change and its impacts. These agreements provide a framework for sharing knowledge, resources, and best practices in addressing sea level rise. The future potential of science in actively handling sea level rise lies in continued research, technological advancements, and collaborative efforts. By leveraging scientific knowledge, engaging stakeholders, and integrating science into policy and decision-making processes, society can work toward resilient coastal communities, protection of vulnerable ecosystems, and sustainable development in the face of sea level rise.

7 Conclusion

This chapter introduced the various strategies and approaches to address sea level rise and explored the significance of sea level rise, the vulnerable regions and populations, and the potential consequences of inaction. It discussed the role of science in providing valuable insights, data, and modeling to inform decision-making processes. It also walked through several mitigation strategies, such as coastal wetland restoration, managed retreat, land use planning, nature-based infrastructure, and climate-resilient building design. It emphasized the importance of integrating science, technology, and stakeholder collaboration to develop innovative solutions. The challenges and gaps between scientists and impacted communities were also identified, including the need for improved communication, equity considerations, and ethical decision-making.

We also discussed the future potential of science in actively addressing sea level rise, like advancing technology and data collection, improving understanding of feedback mechanisms, integrating climate and sea level rise models, developing innovative engineering and infrastructure solutions, fostering stakeholder engagement, and integrating science into policy and decision-making processes. The vision for the future involves a multidisciplinary and collaborative approach, where science will be central in developing sustainable and resilient coastal communities, protecting vulnerable ecosystems, and informing long-term adaptation and mitigation strategies.