Abstract
Modern day agriculture warrants for the crops which are able to take the edge off climate change along with increased productivity. Scale up production, economic viability, mass-scale trials, and involved environmental concerns are the important dimensions in this regard. Imprudent use of conventional fertilizers is a major environmental concern for soil and water reservoirs also leading to lower nutrient utilization in plants. Nanocomposites are playing vital role in advanced agricultural practices with their eco-friendly, biodegradable, economical, and publicly acceptable characteristics. Inclusion of nanocomposites as a support results in cascade signal activation of plant intrinsic immune system improving disease resistance in crop plants. Nutritional values of the crop, increased crop yield, improvement in the acquired plant response/ resistance against broad spectrum of pathogens and withstanding multiple stresses under the dynamic climate conditions with the use of nanocomposites is reviewed in the present work. Related aspects about the endophytic symbiosis of nanocomposites as an alternative to conventional fertilizers for the growth and well-being of the crop are highlighted. The role of nanocomposites in the plant growth, plant physiology, crops quantity, and crops quality are discussed. This compilation will contribute in developing a critical understanding of the current state of the art of nanocomposites as fertilizers.
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1 Introduction
A nanofertilizer is a product that serves the purpose of fertilizers at nano-scale. It is a product that transports nutrients to crops by modified means of transportation. The modified mean of transportation can be encapsulation, coating with thin layer or emulsion. Nanocomposite fertilizers are the formulations synthesized by combining two or more materials at nanoscale. The properites of starting materials gets curated as the composition of several nanomaterials gets captured within a material matrix. Nanocomposites evolve as an inorganic matrix hosting the organic phase, or vice versa, from an organic matrix hosting the inorganic phase. The design of Nanocomposite phase may aim at permeation of the desired component simultaneously preventing the other ill-favored components. Nanocomposites are heterogeneous or hybrid materials in a solid framework that can enhance the properties of the final product compared to those of conventional composites with individual phases. In this solid framework, at least one of the constituents has nanoscale dimensions (Neitzel et al., 2012; Sen, 2020). A variety of nanoparticles (NPs), including metals, metal oxides, zeolites, carbon-based materials, etc., are available. Nanocomposite fertilizers are used in almost every sector of agriculture. Various applications of nanocomposite materials influencing agricultural practices are depicted in Fig. 4.1.
Nanocomposite materials influencing agricultural practices
There is a lot to cover in the recent developments in nanotechnology for agriculture that have aimed to overcome the disadvantages of using conventional fertilizers. The role of nanocomposites in the fertilizer sector is particularly of interest here, as revealed by the expected increase in the use of nanofertilizers, which led to a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) exceeding 17% at a valuation of nearly USD 1.6 billion by 2030 (Jha et al., 2023). The characteristic advantages of nanotechnology, such as the extremely small size of nanoparticles, their extremely high surface area, and their high aspect ratio, provide potential solutions to address environmental concerns by replacing conventional fertilizers with nanocomposite fertilizers (Toksha et al., 2021). The various possible alterations to nanoparticle morphology, such as nanotubes, nanofilms, and nanoporous structures, enable the delivery of an optimal amount of the intended fertilizer via controlled or sustained release (Liang et al., 2022; Lohmousavi et al., 2020; Shaghaleh et al., 2022). Abiotic stresses, such as soil salinity, affect plant growth and crop production.
In India alone, salinity, alkalinity, and acidity are major factors that adversely affect food security (Kumar & Sharma, 2020). Salinity stresses roots and creates an ionic difference in the plant cell due to the buildup of Na+ and Cl−, which diminishes nutrient uptake thus inhibiting plant growth. This buildup of Na+ and Cl− in plant leaves reduces the photosynthetic area of leaves, affecting plant growth. Most crops commonly counter the harmful effects of salinity with the overproduction of a set of organic compounds. Such organic compounds act as osmolytes to counteract stress. Additionally, crops also contain dynamic antioxidant enzymes, which are able to minimize the damage caused by environmental stressors. Such a natural defense, however, is inefficient in countering environmental stresses such as salinity. This situation demands taking economically viable and effective actions to minimize adverse effects and avoid the further increase in soil salinity. Soil salinity also changes plant physiology by disrupting its ionic balance and water homeostasis. It is also the root cause of damage in cellular-level redox homeostasis, which is caused by the escalated buildup of reactive oxygen. The losses due to saline soil have been estimated to cost over USD 27 billion dollars per year (Shahid et al., 2018).
The physiology of plants—i.e., the various functions of plant parts—enables photosynthesis and germination. Various phases of nanocomposites involving minerals and metal-based nanomaterials, such as oxides and ferrites, carbon matrices (e.g., graphene), carbon nanotubes, and biogenic materials, are synthesized for their possible applications in plant sciences. Table 4.1 presents the critical role and usage of nanocomposites in plant growth, plant physiology, crop quality, and sustainability on the basis of a few recent studies.
Their novel characteristics make nanocomposite products significantly different from their original forms of molecules and their bulk counterparts. Because of their unique properties, nanocomposites are garnering attention in research on agricultural processes, products, and applications. Nanocomposites include exciting alternatives to the existing synthetic chemical approaches to agricultural practices. These highly effective nanocomposites also modify application strategies, enable a slow-and-steady release, and improve target specificity. Nanocomposites endure over a prolonged period, which is also a vital characteristic for their applications in crop cultivation. This property influences their cost-effectiveness in that the desired activity can be achieved at a lower dose. Both lower-dose, target-oriented delivery and higher bioactivity will contribute to ecofriendly agricultural practices in the future. In-depth research in this area will ensure that the implementation of nanocomposite policies in crop sustainability and pest control will be useful and will help minimize environmental degradation and harm to humans. The aim of nanocomposites is to enhance the efficiency of the main matrix material by improving its physical, chemical, and biological properties. This ability to enhance physicochemical and biological properties also widens the application areas of newly produced nanocomposites in comparison with singly applied nanomaterials. Nanocomposites can be considered useful in the formation of nanocarriers, which are employed to carry and deliver the intended material by adopting both controlled- and slow-release modes. This improves the precision of farming practices such that it increases crop production and improves the nutrient values of consumable plant parts. Of course, this must be achieved without harming water and soil resources. The continuous reduction of dietary diversity and the increase in the consumption of staple crop-derived products have led to micronutrient deficiencies. Nanocomposites are expected to overcome such deficiencies by supplying micronutrients directly to plants. This problem of micronutrient deficiency is severe in areas where fertile soil lacks micronutrients.
Recent studies have evaluated the role of nanoformulations in various aspects of plant growth and crop yield (Chakraborty et al., 2023; Jakhar et al., 2022; Sharma et al., 2022). A study aiming to determine the role of nanostructured materials in the variation of photosynthetic efficiency using a sustainable horticulture model was reported by Tighe-Neira et al. (2018). Other reports have shown that nanocomposites play roles in one of the growth phases of plants and in their variations, such as silica and its nanocomposites and copper and its nanocomposites. Also, Antul Kumar et al. and Matias Menossi et al. have elaborated on the inclusion of nanocomposites and bionanocomposites in sustainable agriculture.
The process that maintains the quality of crop yields is termed biofortification (Aziz et al., 2019; De Steur et al., 2017). There are a few well-known approaches to enhancing micronutrient content and bioavailability in edible staple crop tissues during plant growth (Carvalho & Vasconcelos, 2013). Using fertilizers; improving soil content so that all the required micronutrients reach the plant, known as agronomic biofortification; and practicing genetic engineering via plant breeding modification all improve the quality of crops (Dhaliwal et al., 2023). Using nanocomposite-based approaches for improving biofortified staple crop yields is a promising alternative to remediate micronutrient deficiencies (Achari et al., 2019). Food crops supplemented with micronutrients seem to have positive impacts on nutrition and human health (Dutta et al., 2022). A recent review has updated the approaches that use nanoparticles to overcome nutrient deficiencies. The fortification of micronutrients in plants will in turn fulfill humans’ nutrient requirements (Kapoor et al., 2022).
The objective of this chapter is to present an up-to-date understanding of nanocomposite fertilizers. What has been recently carried out in the field of nanocomposite fertilizers and how these findings will be helpful in developing overall fertilizer policies, including those for nanocomposites, are summarized in this chapter. This chapter also aims to provide a readable synthesis of the recent standard resources of nanocomposite fertilizers available in the literature. Moreover, this chapter reviews and provides updates on the contemporary knowledge on and the future of nanocomposites for promoting sustainable crop cultivation under the dynamic global climate.
2 Nutritional Nanocomposites
The role of nanocomposites encompasses plant growth, plant physiology, crop quantity, and crop quality. Nanocomposite fertilizers are promising alternatives to their bulk and conventional counterparts thanks to their enormous potential. Various factors, such as the conditions in which the nanocomposites are applied, are considered and evaluated for each plant. As a result of efforts taken for sustainable agriculture, world cereal production is expected to increase by the end of the 2020s. The main crops that will benefit from this growth include maize, wheat, and supplementary coarse grains. Increased research on seed varieties and superior agricultural modifications have contributed the most to increasing crop yields. However, these attempts have fallen short in alleviating the impacts of climate change and production constraints. In the majority of developing countries, production constraints such as investment financing and land-tenure issues are quite serious. The price of fertilizer is a vital consideration in agricultural financial investments. The causes of the dynamic changes in cereal prices include seasonality, financial constraints such as transport costs (which depend on energy/oil prices), and agricultural commodity price volatility (Kwas et al., 2022).
A greener approach to increased agricultural productivity could lead to possible pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of agriculture and to increase the area for crop production. Of these pathways, the area for crop production is almost at its limit and arguably cannot be extended further. Increasing the food production index is necessary to increase cereal food production while reducing agricultural carbon emissions. Alternate designs include using ecofriendly, effective fertilizers that can enhance crop yield in healthy, ecological settings (Koondhar et al., 2021). Cereals and other food grains are important because of their nutritional contributions and low costs (Beyer, 2010). Understanding the natural functionalities and modifications of a given crop could be vital in designing nanocomposite fertilizers (do Nascimento et al., 2022). For example, alterations in the germination process lead to the increased bioavailability of nutrients such as carbohydrates and proteins (Poole et al., 2021). Another example of this kind is bioactive compounds’ leading to increased levels of antioxidants and fiber (Erenstein et al., 2022). The nanocomposite fertilizers enriching crop products can reduce many severe medical conditions due to malnutrition by increasing the intake of bioactive food components, particularly dietary fiber. The hidden hunger problem, due to food containing low levels of mineral elements, could be solved by using nanocomposite fertilizers. While aiming to meet humans’ nutritional requirements, ecological boundaries must not be crossed and resources must not be overexploited because those would further exacerbate environmental degradation and water scarcity. Climate changes and crises further compound problems such as crop adaptation and crop losses. The application of nanocomposite fertilizers has been adopted as a novel agricultural practice to overcome difficulties in maintaining worldwide cereal production, enhancing crops’ crucial nutrients, and reducing the levels of poisonous elements in the edible parts of agricultural crops. However, these materials’ deleterious effects on crops’ physiologies, antipathogen activities, and action mechanisms remain challenges for the scientific community to overcome. Generating nanocomposite fertilizers via a green synthesis method would reduce the potential toxicity of the nanocomposite fertilizers in comparison with those obtained via conventional approaches that use environmentally degrading precursors (García-Ovando et al., 2022). The improvements in nutrient availability thanks to nanocomposite fertilizers, as compared to conventional fertilizers, is discussed in the following section. Its subsections are as follows:
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2.1
Plant growth
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2.2
Plant physiology
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2.3
Crop quantity and quality
2.1 Plant Growth
More than 14 mineral elements—in the form of micro- and macronutrients, including oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water—are required for a plant to grow (Mengel et al., 2001; White & Brown, 2010). The physiological and biochemical processes of plants can be improved by using nanocomposite fertilizers to increase nutrient availability. This in turn contributes to the plant’s overall growth. The dynamics of including nanophase materials for plant growth have been focal points of research over the past decade (Amer et al., 2021; Sigmon et al., 2021; Verma et al., 2018, 2019). Industrialization has long contaminated soil and water resources, and such contamination has spread all over the planet. The main concern here is that heavy metal stress conditions hamper the metabolic, physiological, and biochemical characteristics of plants and plant growth. Heavy metal stresses also affect other indications of plants’ life spans, such as seed germination, photosynthetic activity, root length and size, root-tip mitosis, and micronucleus induction. Heavy metals accelerate aging and cause roots to be shorter, thinner, and less developed overall. Nanocomposites formed under gamma irradiation involving chitosan, Ag, and Mn-Mg ferrite improved plant growth in cabbage under Cd stress. The Cd content was reduced in leaves and roots, and the chlorophyll values increased. Including this nanocomposite also reportedly improved the antioxidant and nonantioxidant enzymes of the target plant (Abdel Maksoud et al., 2022). The environmental hazards of urea rise from urease hydrolyzation. Urea’s leaching into the nearby environment reduces nutrient-uptake efficiency. A fertilizer synergist (FS) of sodium humate transported by a hydrogen-bond nano-network leading to high biosafety and a decrease in agricultural pollution was reported by Linglin Zhou et al. (2017). Images from field experiments on potato, corn, and rice crops are depicted in Fig. 4.2.
Field photographs of (a) potato, (b) corn, and (c) rice at their seedling and mature stages, including rice roots and ears. (Reprinted with permission from Zhou et al., 2017)
The term micronutrients in the context of agriculture refers to elements that are abundant in soil. Elements such as Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn are subsumed under this class, and they are required in smaller amount but play critical roles in plant growth and development. Micronutrients enable healthy plant growth, whereas their deficiency causes abnormal growth in plants, and higher concentrations may hamper plant growth. One role of micronutrients in plant growth and development is to maximize crop yields (Chrysargyris et al., 2022; Tripathi et al., 2015). The routes that micronutrients take in plants, including soil broadcast spreaders and foliar sprays, suffer from conventional drawbacks such as volatilization, leaching, and surface runoff. In addition to this disbursement of micronutrients through the soil, seed treatment is useful for early critical plant growth and for crop yields. The fixation or unavailability of these nutrients is sensitive to many climatic and edaphic conditions.
Copper in trace amounts is one such micronutrient that is essential for plant growth. Besides exhibiting antibacterial, antifungal, and insecticidal activities at the nanosize, it also inhibits plant growth in higher concentrations (Jampílek & Kráľová, 2022). Chitosan/polyacrylic acid/copper nanocomposites obtained via copolymerization were provided through foliar method to onion plants (Abd El-Aziz et al., 2019). This experiment demonstrated the antibacterial activity of synthesized nanocomposites and resulted in the higher growth and yield of onion bulbs.
Zinc is a metal to which a large number of proteins are bound and is used in all six enzyme groups (Osman et al., 2021). Nanocomposites, such as zinc NCs, have proven to be beneficial to plants grown under salinity or drought stress (Batista et al., 2020). Improvement along various indicators—such as enhanced plant growth, chlorophyll content, and fewer aborted seeds per pod with better antioxidant enzyme activity—and the accumulation of osmolytes are attributed to the use of zinc NCs (Kheir et al., 2019). When provided to maize crops, urea-based nanocomposites, including ZnSO4 or ZnO NCs, in fertilizer stimulated plant development in a nutrient-poor sand. When several fertilizer nanocomposites were applied simultaneously, it improved root morphology characteristics, such as increased root length and surface area, which improved nutrient uptake from soil (Giroto et al., 2022). In a study of cotton plants, zinc NCs in fertilizer improved several physiological parameters, namely chlorophyll content and antioxidant activity, which are indicators of plant quality and quantity (Hussein & Abou-Baker, 2018). Plants treated with foliar applications of Zn NC fertilizer and humic acid markedly increased plant growth and dry biomass (Najafi Vafa et al., 2015). Additionally, the contents of plant growth–promoting hormones were increased with the use of Fe and Zn NC fertilizers (Sharifi, 2016). Layered double hydroxide (LDH) and multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) with zinc have also been explored to improve micronutrient release and distribution. One study on onion plants under arid conditions used MWCNTs as micronutrient distributors and a nutrient stabilizer, which resulted in improved plant growth (Kumar et al., 2018). Nanocomposites of Zn and Al in a layered double-hydroxide matrix maintained the pH level via a controlled release of α-naphthalene acetate, which acted as a plant growth regulator (bin Hussein et al., 2002).
Iron (Fe) is an essential micronutrient for plant growth. It contributes to photosynthesis, chloroplast development, and dark respiration. Iron-deficit plants exhibit reduced photosystems and lipid composition and altered chlorophyll ratios (Alidoust & Isoda, 2013; Ghasemi et al., 2014). Gum kondagogu, a natural biopolymer, has been used in a nanocomposite material for mungbean plant growth. This nanocomposite, which includes highly monodispersed Fe nanoparticles and Gum kondagogu, has been reported to improve plant growth. The increased radial length and biomass were attributed to increased water uptake that was facilitated by the use of Fe nanoparticles (Raju et al., 2016). Zeolite/Fe2O3 nanocomposites synthesized by using low-cost and low-energy natural materials were reported as a fertilizer formulation that improved plant growth and yields (Jahangirian et al., 2020).
Macronutrients such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K)— together referred to as NPK—are required in adequate amount for plants to efficiently reach their genetic yield potentials. NCs have well-known benefits, such as the ease of penetration, that enhance the application of NPK. The increase in the growth of wheat leaves, for example, was achieved by increasing NPK nutrient availability, thanks to a nanosize formulation that penetrated the leaves’ stomata via gas exchange, as reported by Abdel-Aziz et al. (2018). Many biopolymers are in the nanocomposite formulations used in the agricultural sector (Kassem et al., 2021; Menossi et al., 2022; Olad et al., 2018; Pimsen et al., 2021). In the exploration of sustainable agricultural practices, chitosan-based nanocomposites (ChNCs) could be ecofriendly alternatives that contribute to plant growth (Jain et al., 2022). Chitosan, a natural polymer extracted from the chitin deacetylation of crustaceans, insects, fungi, etc., is used as one of the types of NPK nanocomposites. Chitosan has a natural affinity for metals, making it an efficient encapsulating agent. Efficient nutrient utilization ensures plant growth and can be achieved by using chitosan-based nanocomposites (Sharma et al., 2022). ChNCs are some of the prime candidates for improving crop growth, crop physiology, and crop protection. ChNCs are often sourced from biofood waste in cost-effective, biodegradable, biocompatible, and benign ways. These formulations regulate plant growth, antimicrobial activities, and stress-inhibitory activities. Recently, researchers designed and tested various recipes involving several types of ChNCs (Sangwan et al., 2023). Overall, ChNCs contributes towards a wide range of enhancements of plant morphology.
However, there are mixed reports about the role of chitosan on the growth of the roots, shoots, and leaves of various plants. One study on the use of chitosan + NPK nanocomposites for the growth of wheat plants in sandy soil reported positive results at harvest along crop and mobilization indices, along with a shorter life cycle (Abdel-Aziz et al., 2016). By using the slow-release method, nanocomposites formed with zeolite and chitosan and combined with sago starch reported to result in better growth indicators. Such nanocomposites also helped in maintaining the water level, proving their use as slow-release fertilizers (Pimsen et al., 2021). A superabsorbent nanocomposite revealed that the slow-release process facilitated water uptake. This nanocomposite was produced by using an Fe and NPK agrochemical formulation based on maize bran and montmorillonite (Gharekhani et al., 2018). In another formulation, poly (vinyl alcohol) + cellulose nanocomposites were developed such that the cellulose nanocrystals were derived from hemp stems through chemical treatments. The poly (vinyl alcohol) + cellulose nanocomposites were used to coat NPK-compound fertilizers by using a fluidized bed-coating machine. Improvements in release behavior and moisture content in soil were reported after using these formulations (Kassem et al., 2021).
2.2 Plant Physiology
Plant physiology parameters include fresh/dry weight, root–shoot ratios, root biomass and shoot biomass. Leaf area, crop yield, the reproductive index, photosynthetic pigment content, and chlorophyll α fluorescence are some of the other important plant physiology parameters (Füzy et al., 2019). Because the inclusion of nanosize minerals as nutrients and stimulants in plant fertilizer strategies has improved the physiological and biochemical attributes of plants, research on the use of nanocomposites for improving plant physiology has accelerated. Additionally, nanoparticles also reduce oxidative damage and improve water and nutrient uptake, resulting in increased crop yields.
Biochar, a charcoal-like substance, is synthesized in a controlled environment by burning the organic waste from agriculture and forestry to reduce contamination and ensure the safe storage of carbon. In the pursuit of increasing of crop yields, the harmful effects of various environmental stresses, such as salinity, must be minimized (Hessini et al., 2019). Any imbalance in the conventional practice of using mineral fertilizers reduces plant growth potential and nutritive quality instead of achieving higher yields (Kumar et al., 2021). Moreover, it worsens soil conditions and pollutes the environment.
Salinity affects plant growth potential, reduces the output of photosynthesis, and adversely impacts water and ion statuses in affected plants. Researchers have aimed to improve plants’ salt tolerance under saline conditions by increasing the electron transport rate and reducing sodium accumulation and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation (Chrysargyris et al., 2019). Salt toxicity leads to stomatal conductivity, which generates high levels of reactive oxygen species (Egamberdieva et al., 2019; Kapoor et al., 2022). This high level of reactive oxygen species disrupts plants’ cellular structures and causes cell death. To enable plant survival under saline conditions, ample concentrations of nutrients must be made available to plants; this is because nutrients help regulate physiological pathways under saline stress (Sheldon et al., 2017).
The use of biochar nanocomposites with magnesium and manganese has been reported to increase the contents of potassium, manganese, and magnesium in plant tissues, photosynthetic pigmentation, and leaf water content and to reduce sodium accumulation, together increasing plant biomass when compared with control plants (Ghassemi-Golezani & Farhangi-Abriz, 2021). Nanocomposites such as biochar and metal oxides might compound the benefits of biochar and nanomaterials. Nanocomposites made from a combination of magnesium and manganese metal oxides with biochar improved chlorophyll content, root growth, and the overall productivity of safflowers (Ghassemi-Golezani & Farhangi-Abriz, 2021). This nanocomposite also contributed to maintaining optimal concentrations of nutrients and optimal water content in plant cells and enhanced nutrient absorption rates (Farhangi-Abriz & Ghassemi-Golezani, 2021).
The physiological and biochemical parameters of crops improve with the application of nanocomposites. In the case of sunflowers, a Fe3O4 + H2O biocompatible magnetic nanofluid improved the total chlorophyll content of leaves at a low concentration, namely > 0.75% (Pîrvulescu, et al., 2015). Barley plants were hydroponically subjected to a recipe of Co and Nd doped in Fe nanoparticles that were produced via the sonochemical synthesis method. This resulted in an increase in biomass, chlorophyll content, and carotenoids at certain concentrations (125, 250, 500, and 1000 mg/L); that study concluded that the improvement in plant physiology showed a positive correlation between magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) and photosynthetic machinery (Tombuloglu et al., 2020). After foliar applications of nanosize TiO2 (nTiO2), increases in yield, chlorophyll content, carotenoids, and anthocyanin content were reported in maize plants by Morteza et al. and in barley plants by Janmohammadi et al. (Morteza et al., 2013; Janmohammadi et al., 2016). Other studies have reported improvements in the structure of chlorophyll, the ability to capture sunlight, pigment production, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCo) activity, and photosynthesis efficiency after applications of nTiO2 (Gohari et al., 2020; Satti et al., 2022; Yang et al., 2006). A study using perlite NPs and TiO2/perlite NCs claimed that biologically synthesized NPs were more benign than chemically synthesized NPs. While no significant change in chlorophyll or carotenoid contents was reported in that study, valuable secondary metabolites, such as volatile compounds, hypericin, and pseudohypericin, significantly increased after the treatment using TiO2/perlite NCs. The experimental steps involved in that study are depicted in Fig. 4.3 (Ebadollahi et al., 2019).
Flowchart showing the role of TiO2/perlite NCs on the plant physiology of Hypericum perforatum. (Reprinted with permission from Ebadollahi et al., 2019)
The benefits of Zn and Si nanoparticles could be advantageous to plant physiology (Song & Kim, 2020; Sturikova et al., 2018). A Zn-Si nanocomposite could bring the functionalities of separate phases together. Zn plays a critical role in various crops in that it improves chlorophyll content, plant biomass, and yield quantity. The functionality of Si controlling root to leave transportation of Na+ ions and increasing the level of K+ ions in leaves is useful in minimizing the negative impacts of oxidative, salinity, and drought stresses (Naaz et al., 2022; Rastogi et al., 2019). These features become useful under soil salinity, arid, and semiarid conditions. A foliar spray containing Zn-Si nanocomposites that was used on soybean plants in saline soil that contained plant growth–promoting microbes significantly diminished the detrimental effects of water stress and soil salinity on soybean crop physiology (Osman et al., 2021). The changes to plants after a water application led to deeper root penetration, heavier nodules (according to dry weight), and higher leaf K+ content. A metal nanocomposite of magnesium and manganese based on biochar was evaluated for soil quality and salt toxicity in safflowers. The study emphasized the role of NCs in enriching plant physiology when the water level of plant tissues was maintained. The NCs affected the required exchangeable sodium concentration in soil and enhanced the nutrient absorption rate of plants. Osmotic stress is a consequence of salinity which reduces the abosorption rate of the plants. A reduction in the osmotic stress was observed after the application of NCs.
Our current gap between food demands and agricultural production requires scientific approaches that bring about uniform seed germination and seedling development to ensure proper crop growth. The process of germination initiated via imbibition—i.e., mature dry seed taking up water from soil moisture—completes the life cycle in a way that lengthens the embryonic axis, typically the radicle, from the seed envelope. The degradation of starch during the germination of crop seeds and the consequent seedling establishment lead to enzymatic actions. α-amylase is the enzyme that initiates the hydrolysis of starch granules naturally synthesized during the germination of seeds. The α-amylase augmentation during seed germination is vital for efficient plant growth. Seed priming is one of the standard modern agricultural practices advantageous for increasing seed germination efficiency, seedling growth, and protection against pathogens (Chakkalakkal et al., 2022). Including NCs in priming, which achieves the slow uptake of intended nutrients to the developing plant, standardizes the antioxidant defense system, leading to enhanced germination competence and plant growth (Szőllősi et al., 2020). Various parameters, such as comparable size, stability, and coatings of nanocomposite materials, are advantageous for plants to take up nutrients through the root epidermis (Zhang et al., 2022a, b). These nanocomposites are bio-altered into their ionic forms and are distributed throughout the rest of the plant parts (Szőllősi et al., 2020). The NCs work as a stimulus in seed germination by reducing seed dormancy, which eventually accelerates the germination rate and seedling development. Reductions in cell division in the apex roots, leading to root shortening, and increases in the levels of lipid peroxidation, leading to chromosomal aberrations and mitotic abnormalities, need to be properly addressed before systematically using NCs.
Crop seed germination is vulnerable to diverse environmental stresses. A nanocomposite recipe that preserves germination activity at desired levels while helping seeds adapt to adverse environmental conditions is needed. Coating reagents in nanocomposites have effectively improved wheat seed germination and subsequent seedling establishment under manifold environmental stresses. The carbon dioxide generated in the process of seed respiration and gradually emitted oxygen may accelerate seed germination activity and reduce germination time. Coating reagents can be critical in water absorption and retention because they effectively absorb carbon dioxide. Nanocomposite materials using natural clays help to establish a suitable soil-moisture-conserving matrix. Supplementing crops with nutrients such as zinc (Zn) and iron (Fe) may also improve moisture retention (Nada & Blumenstein, 2015). This eventually enhances crop yields and quality by improving the physical and biological parameters of soil. A silica and calcium peroxide nanocomposite matrix used as an environmentally friendly seed coating approach for wheat crops maintained high seed germination activity, as reported by Jun Ni et al. (2022). A constant rate of generating hydrogen peroxide at smaller dosages has been recognized as a mechanism for protecting seeds from microbial infection during seed germination and seedling establishment.
2.3 Crop Quantity and Quality
Nanocomposites (NCs) are readily absorbed and internally distributed by plants in such a way that they improve crop quantities and yields. NCs also demonstrate better abilities to provide nutrients because they possess large surface areas, high reactivity rates, compatible pore sizes, and desirable particle morphologies. The antimicrobial characteristics of nanoparticles can be exploited in nanocomposite formulations to protect plants. Bacteria and fungi are the main causes of infestations that lead to various crop diseases. These infections seriously threaten crop growth, reduce crop yields and quality, and can even lead to health risks to humans upon consumption. Metallic nanoparticle-based nanocomposites play significant roles in inhibiting pathogenic bacteria and fungi. More research on metallic nanoparticle-based nanocomposites needs to be carried out to assess the interactions between nanoparticles and pathogens, and the indirect effects of inducing plant susceptibility to infection also needs to be considered. Ferrite materials and their composites have a wide range of applications (Shaikh et al., 2021; Toksha et al., 2008, 2017). Most of the elements, in addition to iron, that are included in ferrite matrices are essential nutrients for plant growth and yields (Shebl et al., 2020). In one study, Mn-Zn nanosize ferrites at varying concentration levels that were applied through the foliar method to squash plants (Cucurbita pepo L.) resulted in yield increases as high as 50%, along with increases in organic matter content and total energy in squash leaves (Shebl et al., 2020). In the case of wheat crops, a Ce-Mn ferrite nanocomposite has been reported to improve photosynthesis efficiency and total crop yields. Realizing the potential of NC applications as fertilizers, one study reported increases in the uptakes of Fe and Mn micronutrients in plant shoots (Zarinkoob et al., 2021).
Crop quantity varies as a function of the size of nanoparticles, their compositions, and their concentrations. It also depends on the physical and chemical properties of the NCs and the targeted plant species. Fertilization efficiency is critically affected by changes in pore size distribution. Thus, the choice of synthesis method becomes important because it controls the properties of NC fertilizer, such as surface morphology, pore structure, and particle size and shape. This in turn determines crop yields. When nanocomposite fertilizers with chitosan and NPK fertilizers are used in low concentrations under clayey and sandy soil conditions, they have been reported to increase plant growth rates in wheat crops (Abdel-Aziz et al., 2016). The important characteristics of crop yields include seed weight, seed yield, seed height, and the number of branches produced. One study reported that crop quantity and quality were ensured through growth-promoting action and the simultaneous application of Fe + Zn with NPK (Drostkar et al., 2016). This beneficial effect on crop quantity and quality contributes to cumulative growth hormone production and metabolic process augmentation. In one study, seed treatments of Fe3O4–urea nanocomposites on rice plants under hydroponic conditions resulted in enhanced growth and yields (Guha et al., 2022). The NCs enhanced photosynthetic efficiency and nitrogen infusion by making the nitrogen and iron readily available to the plant. The slow release of urea achieved through these NCs improved the nitrogen use efficiency of the plant.
The yield and subsequent storage of crops must be considered because crops are prone to growing mildew, owing to their rich nutrition (Li et al., 2021; Rodríguez-Félix et al., 2021). Pathogens such as mildew lead to declines in quality and germination rate and can even harm human health (Wang et al., 2020; Wawrzyniak et al., 2018). Crops that have relatively large embryos easily absorb moisture and carry large numbers of bacteria. This makes them susceptible to producing pathogenic microorganisms. Postharvest moisture content provides a suitable growth environment for microorganisms during transportation and storage. This leads to the development and reproduction of pathogenic microorganisms and causes safety problems such as the mildew and excessive mycotoxins (Kimanya, 2015). The quality parameters of a crop include its color, taste, nutrition level, and processing characteristics. Moreover, seeds lose their reproductive value with the excessive growth of microorganisms, which hampers the germination rate (Walker et al., 2018). Combinations of fertilizer NCs and pesticide NCs are parts of recent approaches used to maximize plant growth potentials. Such nanocomposites are synthesized with a multiple target approach of sustained foliar retention weeding and providing nourishment to the plants. Yanzheng Ji et al. reported one such nanocomposite involving zinc, mesoporous silica, and polydopamine working as combinations of pesticide NCs and fertilizer NCs (Ji et al., 2020). Nanocomposites used to implement or modify a slow-release mechanism has been recently explored (Dimkpa et al., 2022; Olad et al., 2018). Nano-bentonite supplemented with Zn and ZnO NPs formed a nanocomposite that was encapsulated in stearic acid, paraffin wax, and oil. A coating material binding the Zn and N achieved a slow-release mechanism, thus showing the nano-bentonite to be an ecofriendly and cost-effective material (Umar et al., 2022). The dual role of zinc as a source of micronutrients and a coating material of slow-release urea was reported by Beig et al. (2022). That study reported that the nanosize zinc coating was more effective in increasing N uptake and Zn uptake in wheat crops, resulting in higher yields compared with using bulk zinc coatings. The steps to follow when using nanosize zinc coatings to improve wheat crop yields are listed in Fig. 4.4.
Flowchart of steps for using nanosize zinc coatings to enhance wheat crop yields. (Reprinted with permission from Beig et al., 2022)
3 Plant Sustainability
The overall wellbeing of crops is vital for food security. In any country’s economy, agriculture creates jobs, increases GDP, and provides food, feed, and biofuels. Efforts to maintain the current rate of crop yields are failing to meet global demands. There is currently at least a 15% gap between the global demand for agricultural products and the crop yields across the globe (Zhao et al., 2022). That crops fall victim to plant diseases and pests only exacerbates the food scarcity problem. On a global scale, the estimated average rates of crop losses caused by pathogens and by pests are 14% and 32%, respectively, for wheat, rice, maize, soybean, and potato crops (OECD-FAO, 2022). The agricultural losses due to pests amount to USD 36 billion annually in India alone (Dhaliwal et al., 2015). Age-old practices, such as tillage, crop rotation, and polycultures, and new practices, such as genetically modifying plants, have been tried and have worked to certain extents at reducing losses from disease outbreaks. Limitations on the availability of arable land and challenges facing maintaining the quality of the environment are the main concerns with these approaches. Moreover, crops may suffer from problems such as lower nutrition values, toxicity, immunosuppression, and allergic reactions (FAO-UN, 2022). In this situation, stable nanocomposites with novel properties, such as cation-exchange capacity and complexation, elevated reactivity, unusual structural phases, large ion-adsorption ratios, and the ability to aggregate, can be effectively used. Polysaccharide nanocomposites have been explored in agricultural research for sustainability (Gamage et al., 2022). These nanocomposites include a wide range of formulations, such as biopolymers, nanosize cellulose, chitin, and clay (Ge et al., 2018). Sathiyanarayanan Anusuya et al. reported the antifungal activity of β-d-glucan nanoparticles against P. aphanidermatum, a pathogenic fungus that distresses many prominent greenhouse crops and field crops (Anusuya & Sathiyabama, 2014). A review of the glucan biopolymer was updated by Somnath Chavanke et al., who elaborated on its effective use in mitigating the effects of climate change on crop plants by enhancing their immunity levels (Chavanke et al., 2022).
Crop storage is a pressing issue in that all efforts made to reduce hunger by following sustainable agricultural practices have not worked. The limited shelf life of crops and food waste together account for the one-third of food that is produced but not consumed. Biologically sourced multifunctional nanocomposites can be effective in addressing these concerns because they can reduce the rate of food decay by retarding ripening, reducing dehydration, and preventing microbial infections. A sustainable nanocomposite including inexpensive or waste materials such as egg-derived polymers and cellulose nanomaterials was reported by Seohui Jung et al. The food coating was palatable and washable (Jung et al., 2020).
Nanocomposites also contribute to plants by developing sensors for crop pathogen detection and mitigating environmental stresses, both of which help promote crop sustainability (Kumar et al., 2023). Crop diseases reduce physiological growth potentials and yields, causing around 40% of crop yields to be lost every year and might destroy the whole crop (Nagarajan, 2007). Crop diseases are the main challenges to overcome in achieving high yields and healthy crops. Different crops are susceptible to one or more specific diseases, hampering their quality and yields. Fusarium head blight (FHB) is a major disease affecting wheat and barley crops, causing as much as 50% of crop yields to be lost (Leplat et al., 2013). Fusarium head blight disease causes F. graminearum to survive for several years in soil or on dead organic matter, particularly crop residues. Its dangers are multifold because it adapts to a wide range of environmental conditions and produces extracellular enzymes that feed on diverse crop residues. Protection or resistance against pathogenic fungi or bacteria could be achieved by using nanocomposites. Graphene oxide (GO) and silver nanocomposites have shown threefold and sevenfold surges in inhibition efficiency, even at relatively low concentrations, compared to using silver and GO suspensions alone (Chen et al., 2016). Plant diseases such as Fusarium solani root rot and wilt diseases occur in many plants, such as soybeans, tomatoes, and peppers. While Fusarium root rot causes seedling stunting, root decay, stem staining, and plant death, wilt diseases disrupt water flow in the xylem, causing leaves to wilt and rapidly killing affected plants. Abeid et al. reported copper oxide–coated GO nanosheets to be effective against such diseases (El-Abeid et al., 2020).
Rice is one of the crops that is widely consumed as an essential food worldwide. Rice crops suffer numerous biotic stressors, including microbial infections, pests, and weeds. Temoor Ahmed et al. reported that the use of chitosan-iron nanocomposites controlled a bacterial leaf blight disease in rice crops by modifying plant resistance to this pathogen and improved the nutritional values of those crops (Ahmed et al., 2022). The Plasmopara viticola pathogen causes downy mildew disease in grapevine plants. Xiuping Wang et al. reported that GO-Fe3O4 nanocomposites were highly effective in treating grapevine plant infections (Wang et al., 2017). According to the above literature, there is a wide scope for research to be conducted on NCs in the fields of plant diseases and plant sustainability.
4 Conclusion
This chapter emphasized the need to study nanocomposite fertilizers. A novel overview of vital crop parameters, such as plant growth, plant physiology, and crop quantity and quality, was presented. Using NCs as nanofertilizers for the enhancement of bio-factors, NC–plant interactions, the safety of using NCs on plants, and NCs’ activities in attenuating the adverse effects of abiotic stresses and heavy metal toxicities were discussed. In this context, the toxic effects of NCs on crops, such as those on crop cell structures that increase the oxidative stress indicators, remain major concerns to address. As supported by recent research publications, the conventional benefits of composites, such as enabling the product to meet nutritional requirements, are also available in the case of nanocomposite fertilizers. Improvements in the delivery mechanisms of fertilizers and slowly releasing micronutrients are among the primary benefits of using nanocomposite fertilizers. NCs are vital to reducing the use of conventional fertilizers and consequently their averse environmental effects. NCs are crucial in alleviating abiotic stresses and heavy metal toxicity. Nanocomposite formulations allow the controlled release and targeted delivery of nutrients, reducing nutrient losses. Nanocomposite formulations also positively contribute to increasing parameters such as solubility, dispersion, nutrient uptake, and nutrient availability. Plant responses to the NCs varies depending on the type of plant species, their growth stages, and the nature of the nanocomposite. This chapter laid out the role of nanocomposites in improving the wellbeing of crop, as alternatives to conventional fertilizers.
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Toksha, B., Joshi, S., Chatterjee, A. (2024). The Potential of Nanocomposite Fertilizers for Sustainable Crop Production. In: Abd-Elsalam, K.A., Alghuthaymi, M.A. (eds) Nanofertilizers for Sustainable Agroecosystems. Nanotechnology in the Life Sciences. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41329-2_4
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