Abstract
The Covid-19 global pandemic, which was first reported in China in late 2019, posed the following challenges: global and domestic insecurity and multilateral issues, including diplomatic rows, medical research nightmares, and frustrated trade flows across the world. By examining media reports and other documents, and using discursive institutionalist theory, I explain the marginalization of the East African community (EAC) multilateralism during the response to this pandemic in the Northern Transport Corridor. I locate the weak multilateralism in states resorting to self-help. I contend that the EAC liberalism intersects with individual post-colonial state memories, which leads to inter-state struggles for the EAC place. I further posit that the health protocols imposed by the World Health Organization interfaced with EAC states’ autobiographical security in two ways: some states accepted the protocols, while others rejected them. This led to state rows that impinged on the multilateralism in the Corridor. To deepen multilateralism, the EAC states should undergo transformation in governance cultures from Lockean cultures of rivalry towards Kantian cultures of friendship. Regulatory power emanating from the EAC Non-Tariff Barriers Elimination Act (2015) is important in this transformation.
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Notes
- 1.
Skordoulis, Constantine and Eugenia Arvanitis. 2008. Space conceptualization in the context of postmodernity: theorizing spatial representations. The International Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies 3:66,): 105–113.
- 2.
Wandia, Mary A.W. 2008. The role of national interest in regional integration: the case of Kenya in the East African Community 2000–2007. MA Thesis, The Institute of Diplomacy and International Studies, University of Nairobi; and African Union. 2022. East African Community (EAC). https://au.int/en/recs/eac. Accessed 22 October 2022.
- 3.
Calabrese, Linda and Andreas Eberhard-Ruiz. 2016. What types of non-tariff barriers affect the East African community.? London: Overseas Development Institute. ODIl.2017. Resolving the unresolved non-tariff barriers in the East African Common. Second and final Report (University of Sussex, Institute of Development Studies and Overseas Development Institute).
- 4.
Wandia, “The Role of National interest”, 81.
- 5.
Ibid, 2.
- 6.
Ibid.
- 7.
Ibid, 10.
- 8.
Odhiambo Mbai, C. 2003. Public service accountability and governance in Kenya since independence Afr. (j. polit. sci. 8 (1): 113–145 and Berman, Bruce. 1990. Control and crisis in colonial Kenya: the dialectic of domination. Nairobi: EAEP.
- 9.
Chipembere, H.B.M. 1976. Kenyan and Tanzanian Socialism (A Comparative Study). Ufahamu: A Journal of African Studies 7: 1, 97–113.
- 10.
Berman, “Control and crisis in colonial Kenya”, 76.
- 11.
Ibid, 80.
- 12.
Ressler, R. Ilana. 2006. What went right in Tanzania: how nation building and political culture have produced forty-four years of peace. Honours, International Politics and the African Studies Certificate Georgetown University. See also H.B.M Chipembere, Kenyan and Tanzanian Socialism. 40.
- 13.
Ressler, “What Went Right in Tanzania?” 6, 10.
- 14.
Wandia, “The Role of National Interest”, 2.
- 15.
Boehm, Sophia. 2011. The politics of American aid and conflict in Northern Uganda. Insights 5: 1 1–34.
- 16.
Green, Elliot. 2010. Patronage, district creation and reform in Uganda. Studies in Comparative International Development volume 45:1,:83–103.
Sjögren, Anders. 2013. Between Militarism and Technocratic Governance State Formation in Contemporary Uganda. Kampala: Fountain Publishers.
- 17.
Ibid, 261.
- 18.
Ibid, 253.
- 19.
Ibid, 262.
- 20.
Ibid.
- 21.
Ibid, 262.
- 22.
Baligidde, Samuel H. 2012. Diplomacy for development or doom? Epistemological reflections on Uganda’s recent foreign policy achievements and blunders, Estudios Internacionales 171:20–44.
- 23.
Wendt, Alexander. 1999. Social theory of international politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- 24.
Schmidt, Vivien. 2010. Reconciling ideas and institutions through discursive institutionalism. In Ideas and politics in social science research, Daniel Béland, Robert Henry Cox eds.: 47–64; Szalai András. 2014. The Persuasiveness and Institutionalization of Defense Rationalist Ideas on nuclear strategy, 1948–1963 (PhD Thesis, Budapest, Hungary).
- 25.
Ibid, 250.
- 26.
Collier, Stephen J. 2009. Topologies of power Foucault’s analysis of political government beyond ‘governmentality’. Theory, Culture & Society 26: 6, 78–108.
- 27.
East African Community. 2015. The East African Community Elimination of Non-Tariff Barriers Bill. Bill Supplement No. 2 to the East African Community Gazette No. 1 of 23 January.
- 28.
Ibid.
- 29.
Winters et al., “Resolving the unresolved non-tariff barriers”, 20.
- 30.
Ressler. “What went right in Tanzania?” 54.
- 31.
Ibid, 54.
- 32.
Beaumont, Peter. 2019. Alarm over cases of disease with Ebola-like symptoms in Tanzania. The Guardian 23 September.
- 33.
Kwayu, Aikande Clement. 2020. Tanzania’s Covid-19 response puts Magufuli’s leadership style in sharp relief. The Conversation 31 May.
- 34.
WHO. 2019. Cases of undiagnosed febrile illness – United Republic of Tanzania. Disease Outbreak News 21 September, at https://www.who.int/csr/don/21-september-2019-undiag-febrile-illness-tanzania/en/. Accessed 16 October 2020.
- 35.
Beaumont, “Alarm over cases of disease”.
- 36.
Magoti, Iddy Ramadhani. 2020. Responding to the Covid-19 Pandemic in Tanzania: The role of solidarity, national unity, and peace. Kujenga Amani. 2020. 9 July. https://kujenga-amani.ssrc.org/2020/07/09/responding-to-the-Covid-19-pandemic-in-tanzania-the-role-of-solidarity-national-unity-and-peace/. Accessed 25 October 2020.
- 37.
Mfula, Chris. 2020. Zambia reopens border with Tanzania to cargo after Covid-19 closure. Reuters 15 May.
- 38.
Magoti, “Responding to the Covid-19 Pandemic in Tanzania”.
- 39.
Frey, Adrian. 2020. Tanzania gets Madagascar’s anti-coronavirus drink disputed by WHO. Club of Mozambique 3 May.
- 40.
BBC. 2020. Coronavirus: John Magufuli declares Tanzania free of Covid-19. 8 June https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-52966016. Accessed 20 November 2022.
- 41.
Ibid.
- 42.
Ibid.
- 43.
BBC 2021. Coronavirus in Tanzania: The country that’s rejecting the vaccine. 6 February. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-55900680. Accessed 20 July 2021.
- 44.
Miriri, Duncan and Nyasha Nyaungwa. 2020. ‘He’s OK’: Tanzania denies Magufuli sick with Covid-19. Reuters 12 March.
- 45.
The Economist. 2021. John Magufuli, Tanzania’s Covid-denying President, dies aged 61. 20 March: https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2021/03/18/john-magufuli-tanzanias-covid-denying-president-dies-aged-61. Accessed 10 August 2020.
- 46.
Matui, Bramwel. 2019. Practicing civil religion in Uhuru Kenyatta’s First Term pentecostalized presidency in Kenya. International Journal of Business and Social Science 10:7, 78–87.
- 47.
Odula, Tom. 2021. Tanzania’s new president changes policy on Covid-19, AP. 7 April.
- 48.
Munda, Constant. 2020. Corona row threatens Sh61 billion Tanzania, Kenya trade. Daily Business 19 May; Mutambo, Aggrey. 2020. Kenya shuts Tanzania, Somalia borders over Covid-19, The EastAfrican 16 May.
- 49.
Munda. “Corona row threatens Sh61 billion Tanzania, Kenya trade”.
- 50.
Ibid. and Mutambo. “Kenya shuts Tanzania, Somalia borders over Covid-19”.
- 51.
Munda. “Corona row threatens Sh61 billion Tanzania, Kenya trade”.
- 52.
Mutambo. “Kenya shuts Tanzania, Somalia borders over Covid-19”.
- 53.
East African Community. 2020. Heads of state consultative meeting of the East African community communiqué. 12 May 2020. https://www.eac.int/communique/1725-communiqu%C3%A9-heads-of-state-consultative-meeting-of-the-east-african-community. Accessed 25 October 2020.
- 54.
Ibid, 4.
- 55.
Tyce, Matthew. 2020. Kenya’s response to Covid-19, Effective States and Inclusive Development 29 April: https://www.effective-states.org/kenyas-response-to-Covid-19/.
- 56.
Mwita, Martin. 2020b. Trucks backlog at borders to be cleared in a week’s time – CS. The Star, 6 May.
- 57.
Ibid; Muhumuza, Rodney and Tom Odula. 2020. Africa’s essential truckers say they face virus stigma. CTV News 7 June.
- 58.
ODI 2017, “Resolving the unresolved non-tariff barriers”, 17.
- 59.
Ibid, 17, 26–27.
- 60.
Ibid, 27.
- 61.
Wandia, “The Role of National interest”, 85.
- 62.
Wandia, “The Role of National interest”, 21.
- 63.
Ibid, 85.
- 64.
Ibid, 85.
- 65.
Ibid, 86.
- 66.
Ibid, 84.
- 67.
Ibid, 86.
- 68.
Ibid, 88.
- 69.
Kaitiritimba, Robinah. 2020. An effective response to Covid-19 is an inclusive response: the case of Uganda, Uganda National Health Consumers’ Organisation (UHC 2–30) 13 July: https://www.uhc2030.org/news-and-stories/blog/an-effective-response-to-Covid-19-is-an-inclusive-response-the-case-of-uganda-555370/. Accessed 20 August 2020; Mugo, Patrick. 2020. Politics Covid-19 Response: What Uganda and Rwanda Got Right and What Kenya, Tanzania and Burundi Didn’t. The Elephant - Speaking truth to power, 18 June.
- 70.
Parkhurst, Justin O. 2002. The Ugandan success story? Evidence and claims of HIV-1 prevention. The Lancet 360 (9326): 78–80, 6 July 2002; Tumushabe Joseph. 2006. The Politics of HIV/AIDS in Uganda. Social policy and development programme paper No 28: United Nations Research Institute for Social Development.
- 71.
WHO. 2020. Uganda Uses Recent Outbreak Experience to Prepare for Coronavirus. 18 March.
https://www.afro.who.int/news/uganda-uses-recent-outbreak-experience-prepare-coronavirus. Accessed 16 October 2020.
- 72.
Banjwa, Adventino. 2020. Dilemmas in Uganda’s ‘War of the Mwananchi’ Against Covid-19. May: https://www.kas.de/documents/280229/8800435/Dilemmas+in+Uganda%E2%80%99s+%E2%80%98War+of+the+Wananchi%E2%80%99+against+Covid-19.pdf/b9cf0011-35b1-fbad-1ab6-248bc66add32?t=1591868005338. Accessed, 27 November 2022.
- 73.
Ibid:4.
- 74.
Muhumuza and Odula, “Africa’s Essential Truckers”.
- 75.
Banjwa, Dilemmas in Uganda’s war of the Mwananchi pp.5.
- 76.
Mwita, “Kenyan truck drivers”.
- 77.
Muhumuza and Odula, “Africa’s Essential Truckers”.
- 78.
Calabrese and Eberhard-Ruiz. What types of non-tariff barriers 2016, 4.
- 79.
Emojong, Osere. 2020. Truckers want Covid-19 retesting time extended to 30 days. The Star 27 October .
- 80.
Sjögren, “Between Militarism and Technocratic Governance”, 261.
- 81.
Winters et al., “Resolving the unresolved non-tariff barriers”. 13.
- 82.
Mwita. “Kenyan truck drivers consider boycotting”.
- 83.
However, the Northern Corridor was not the only securitized place in Uganda. In fact, people who violated the Covid-19 protocols were securitized and high levels of force were used as reported by Human Rights Watch (2020).
- 84.
Mwita. “Kenyan truck drivers consider boycotting”; Wasike Andrew. 2020. East African truckers face backlash from Covid-19. Africa 17 May 2020. https://www.aa.com.tr/en/africa/east-african-truckers-face-backlash-from-Covid-19/1843735. Accessed 20 May 2022.
- 85.
This is an armed community-policing paramilitary group.
- 86.
Human Rights Watch. 2020. Uganda: Respect Rights in Covid-19 Response 2 April. https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/04/02/uganda-respect-rights-Covid-19-response. Accessed 5 May 2020.
- 87.
The EastAfrican. 2020. Drivers standoff turns EAC states relations on its head. The EastAfrican 9 May 2020. https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/tea/business/drivers-standoff-turns-eac-states-relations-on-its-head-1440994. Accessed 10 August 2020.
- 88.
Business Daily. 2020. Harrowing tales of truck drivers stuck on the road. Business Daily 2 June: https://www.businessdailyafrica.com/bd/corporate/shipping-logistics/harrowing-tales-of-truck-drivers-stuck-on-the-road-2291526. Accessed 16 October 2020.
- 89.
Nzila, Dee. 2016. Is it true Migingo Island in Kenya but waters in Uganda? The Standard 29 April.
- 90.
Winters et al., “Resolving the unresolved non-tariff barriers”, 17, 26–27.
- 91.
Anyanzaw, James. 2019. NTBs and disputes blamed for the slowdown in trade among East African states. The EastAfrican, 27 February.
- 92.
Collier. Topologies of Power (2009), 79–80.
- 93.
Mgaya. John A. 1986. Regional integration: The case of the East African integration. MA Thesis, Department of International Relations, the Australian National University.
- 94.
Ibid:4.
- 95.
Ibid:5–6.
- 96.
Ibid:7–8.
- 97.
Ibid:8.
- 98.
Ibid:13.
- 99.
Ibid:13.
- 100.
Ibid:9.
- 101.
Ibid:13.
- 102.
Ibid:13.
- 103.
Ibid:13.
- 104.
Ibid:27.
- 105.
Ibid:45–60.
- 106.
Ibid:58.
- 107.
Verhaeghe, Elke and Craig Mathieson. Understanding the East African Community and its transport agenda. Informal adaptation in regional trade and transport cooperation: European Centre for Development Management. 2017. 2.
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Matui, B. (2023). The Making of Marginal Multilateralism During Covid-19 Response among EAC States: Perspectives from Discursive Institutionalism. In: Arndt, S., Banhoro, Y., Lawanson, T., Msindo, E., Simatei, P. (eds) Covid-19 in Africa: Governance and Containment. African Histories and Modernities. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-36139-5_10
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