The Intersection Between Law and Technology in Maritime Law

Durmuş, Aybüke Naz

doi:10.1007/978-3-031-32356-0_5

Aybüke Naz Durmuş³

345 Accesses
2 Citations

Abstract

Maritime stakeholders have been benefiting from recent technological developments particularly in autonomous maritime vehicles (AMVs) which are used in numerous activities, not only by private maritime sector but also by States and criminals. The concept of maritime safety and security has started to evolve due to such utilisation. Although AMVs may be vulnerable in certain aspects and used by perpetrators, they present several opportunities to enhance maritime security since they considerably reduce human error and risks to human life, can perform missions more precisely and efficiently, and can carry out tasks beyond human capability. Furthermore, these vehicles can monitor and detect illegal activities occurring at sea and allow States to respond swiftly. Thus, States use AMVs for intelligence and surveillance, mine countermeasures, identification, inspections and protection of ports and critical facilities. This shift brings several challenges and opportunities. This chapter attempts to examine the intersection between law and technology in maritime law by addressing the evolution of maritime security, the terminology and the legal status of AMVs, the international legal framework, AMVs in enhancing and threatening maritime security and law enforcement by tackling how AMVs correspond to the current legal framework in the light of these recent developments.

I would like to thank the Republic of Türkiye Ministry of National Education for providing me a fund for my studies. The opinions and views expressed in this chapter are those of the author.

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Notes

1.
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).
2.
International Maritime Organization (IMO).
3.
Kraska and Pedrozo (2013), p. 1; United Nations General Assembly, Report of the Secretary-General, Oceans and the Law of the Sea (10 March 2008), UN Doc A/63/63 (UN A/63/63), para. 39, http://daccess-ods.un.org/access.nsf/Get?Open&DS=A/63/63&Lang=E. Accessed on 27 July 2022.
4.
Bueger (2015), p. 160.
5.
Klein (2011), p. 2.
6.
UN A/63/63, para. 39.
7.
Kraska and Pedrozo (2013), p. 1.
8.
Hawkes (1989), p. 9.
9.
Klein et al. (2009), p. 8.
10.
Jones (2012), p. 1.
11.
Klein (2011), p. 3.
12.
UN A/63/63, paras. 63, 72, 82, 89, 98, 107.
13.
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) (2018).
14.
Fratila et al. (2021), p. 3.
15.
Chalk (2008b), pp. 23–24.
16.
Chalk (2008a), p. 127.
17.
Richardson (2004), p. ix.
18.
UN A/63/63, para. 40.
19.
Mejia (2003), p. 154.
20.
Mejia (2004), p. 317.
21.
Mejia (2003), p. 154.
22.
The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS).
23.
The International Ship and Port Facility Security Code (ISPS Code).
24.
Mejia (2003), p. 154.
25.
Ibid, p. 154.
26.
Mejia (2002), p. 28.
27.
Mejia (2004), p. 317.
28.
Talley (2008), p. 1.
29.
Talley (2008), p. 1.
30.
The Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Maritime Navigation (SUA Convention).
31.
Mejia (2003), p. 154.
32.
Ibid, p. 156.
33.
UN A/63/63, para. 36.
34.
Ibid, para. 36.
35.
Ibid, para 36.
36.
The International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW).
37.
IMO, Maritime Safety Committee, https://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/MeetingSummaries/Pages/MSC-Default.aspx. Accessed on 27 July 2022.
38.
Ibid.
39.
Ibid.
40.
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), Review of Maritime Transport 2021, p. xxiii, available at: https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/rmt2021_en_0.pdf. Accessed on 27 July 2022.
41.
Ibid, pp. xvi, xxiii.
42.
Ibid, p. xxii.
43.
Ibid, p. xxiii.
44.
Mejia (2003), p. 157.
45.
Chamberlain (2008), p. 37.
46.
IMO, Autonomous Shipping, https://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/HotTopics/Pages/Autonomous-shipping.aspx. Accessed on 27 July 2022.
47.
IMO, Outcome of the Regulatory Scoping Exercise for the use of Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS), MSC.1/Circ.1638 (3 June 2021), para. 2.2, available via https://wwwcdn.imo.org/localresources/en/MediaCentre/HotTopics/Documents/MSC.1-Circ.1638%20-%20Outcome%20Of%20The%20Regulatory%20Scoping%20ExerciseFor%20The%20Use%20Of%20Maritime%20Autonomous%20Surface%20Ships…%20(Secretariat).pdf. Accessed on 27 July 2022.
48.
Allen (2018a), p. 491.
49.
Klein (2019), p. 248.
50.
Ibid, p. 248.
51.
Allen (2018a), p. 484.
52.
Ibid, p. 485. U.S. Navy also distinguishes the unmanned vehicles based on their sizes such as Large Unmanned Surface Vehicles (LUSVs), Medium Unmanned Surface Vehicles (MUSVs), and Extra-large Unmanned Undersea Vehicles (XLUUVs): O’Rourke R (Updated February 17, 2022), Navy large unmanned surface and undersea vehicles: background and issues for congress, congressional research service report, available via: https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R45757/47. Accessed on 27 July 2022.
53.
MSC.1/Circ.1638, para. 3.4.
54.
Klein et al. (2020), p. 720; Dinstein and Dahl (2020), p. 43; Klein (2019), p. 248.
55.
U.S. Navy, The Navy Unmanned Surface Vehicle (USV) Master Plan (23 July 2007), available via: https://www.hsdl.org/?abstract&did=479083. Accessed on 27 July 2022.
56.
Allen (2018a), p. 484.
57.
Klein et al. (2020), p. 721.
58.
Allen (2018a), p. 480.
59.
Chang et al. (2020), p. 1.
60.
CMI International Working Group Position Paper on Unmanned Ships and the International Regulatory Framework, p. 3, available via: https://comitemaritime.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/CMI-Position-Paper-on-Unmanned-Ships.pdf. Accessed on 27 July 2022.
61.
Zhu and Xing (2021), p. 129; CMI Paper, p. 1.
62.
CMI Paper, p. 3.
63.
The Convention on the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREGs).
64.
The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL).
65.
The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil (OILPOL).
66.
The International Convention on Salvage (SALCON).
67.
Allen (2018a), p. 493.
68.
Ibid, p. 493.
69.
Ibid, p. 493.
70.
Veal et al. (2019), p. 25; Xing and Zhu (2021), p. 127.
71.
Veal et al. (2019), p. 25.
72.
Xing and Zhu (2021), p. 127; ibid., p. 26.
73.
Xing and Zhu (2021), p. 127.
74.
Veal et al. (2019), p. 25.
75.
Ibid, p. 25; Xing and Zhu (2021), p. 127.
76.
Showalter and Manley (2009), p. 1.
77.
For non-ship AMVs, see Sect. 2.4.
78.
Xing and Zhu (2021), p. 125.
79.
CMI Paper, p. 3.
80.
Ibid, p. 3.
81.
Ibid, p. 1.
82.
Ibid, p. 1.
83.
Ibid, p. 1.
84.
MSC.1/Circ.1638, para. 3.3.
85.
Ibid, para. 2.1.
86.
Chang et al. (2020), pp. 2–3; Veal et al. (2019), p. 29.
87.
UNCLOS Articles 32, 95, 96.
88.
This definition emanates from Article 8 of 1958 Geneva Convention on the High Seas in which warship is defined as ‘a ship belonging to the naval forces of a State and bearing the external marks distinguishing warships of its nationality, under the command of an officer duly commissioned by the government and whose name appears in the Navy List, and manned by a crew who are under regular naval discipline’ which is derived from the 1907 Hague Convention VII relating to the Conversion of Merchant Ships into War-Ships: Nasu and Letts (2020), p. 85.
89.
Schmitt and Goddard (2016), p. 579; McLaughlin (2014), p. 238.
90.
Klein et al. (2020), p. 724.
91.
Nasu and Letts (2020), p. 85.
92.
See Sect. 2.5 of this chapter.
93.
Klein et al. (2020), p. 722.
94.
San Remo Manual on International Law Applicable to Armed Conflicts at Sea, 12 June 1994.
95.
Klein et al. (2020), pp. 724–725.
96.
San Remo Manual, Section IV Rule 60 (b).
97.
Klein et al. (2020), p. 725.
98.
Ibid, p. 725.
99.
Allen (2018a), p. 493.
100.
Ibid.
101.
Klein et al. (2020), p. 722.
102.
UNCLOS Article 19 (2) (f); Vallejo (2015), p. 414.
103.
Department for Transport, Future of transport regulatory review: maritime autonomy and remote operations (28 September 2021), available via: https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/future-of-transport-regulatory-review-maritime-autonomy-and-remote-operations/future-of-transport-regulatory-review-maritime-autonomy-and-remote-operations. Accessed on 27 July 2022.
104.
Ibid.
105.
See Sect. 2.2.
106.
UNCLOS Articles 110–111.
107.
UNCLOS Articles 56, 60, 79, 80, 208, 214, 246.
108.
UNCLOS Articles 11, 56, 60, 79, 80, 208, 214, 246.
109.
UNCLOS Articles 19, 145,194, 209.
110.
UNCLOS Articles 21, 58, 79, 87, 112–115, 145, 297.
111.
UNCLOS Articles 258–263.
112.
Vallejo (2015), p. 414.
113.
Ibid, pp. 415–416.
114.
18 U.S.C. § 845 (c) (3) (2006).
115.
Vallejo (2015), pp. 414–416.
116.
Allen (2018a), p. 513.
117.
Klein (2019), p. 251.
118.
Ibid, p. 251.
119.
Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO, Draft [Practical] Guidelines of IOC, Within the Context of UNCLOS, for the Collection of Oceanographic Data By Specific Means, Seventh Meeting of the Advisory Body of Experts on the Law of the Sea (IOC/ABE-LOS VII) (Libreville, Gabon 19–23 March 2007), available via: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000218771. Accessed on 27 July 2022.
120.
National Ocean Service National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, What is an ocean glider?, https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/ocean-gliders.html. Accessed on 27 July 2022.
121.
Ibid.
122.
Naval Technology (2020), Royal Navy to test underwater gliders in North Atlantic, https://www.naval-technology.com/news/royal-navy-to-test-underwater-gliders-in-north-atlantic/. Accessed on 27 July 2022.
123.
Bork et al. (2008), pp. 308–309.
124.
Ibid.
125.
Ibid.
126.
Ibid.
127.
Ibid.
128.
Ibid.
129.
Ibid.
130.
Klein et al. (2020), p. 721.
131.
The Lloyd’s Register Unmanned Marine Systems Code, available via: https://www.lr.org/en/unmanned-code/. Accessed on 27 July 2022.
132.
Ibid, Section 4.
133.
Ibid, Section 4.
134.
MSC.1/Circ.1638, para 1.2.
135.
IMO, Autonomous ships: regulatory scoping exercise completed, https://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/PressBriefings/pages/MASSRSE2021.aspx. Accessed on 27 July 2022.
136.
MSC.1/Circ.1638 para. 3.5.
137.
Ibid, para. 3.13.
138.
Ibid, para. 3.4.
139.
Ibid, para. 3.4.
140.
Ibid, p. 4.
141.
Ibid, p. 4.
142.
Article 31 (1) of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties.
143.
Ringbom (2019), p. 161.
144.
Parker (2021), p. 34.
145.
Ibid, p. 34.
146.
UNCLOS Article 94 (4) (b).
147.
UNCLOS Article 94 (4) (c).
148.
Parker (2021), p. 34.
149.
Ibid, p. 35.
150.
Zhu and Xing (2021), p. 137.
151.
Veal et al. (2019), p. 36.
152.
Ibid, p. 36.
153.
Ibid, p. 36.
154.
Zhu and Xing (2021), p. 133.
155.
Ringbom (2019), p. 161.
156.
Ibid, p. 161.
157.
Prasetya (2020), p. 108.
158.
Ringbom (2019), pp. 161–162.
159.
Ibid, p. 161.
160.
Zhu and Xing (2021), p. 134. For a detailed analysis of the relationship between UNCLOS and IMO, see Sect. 3.1.2.
161.
Nawrot and Peplowska-Dabrowska (2019), p. 247.
162.
Zhu and Xing (2021), p. 134.
163.
UNCLOS Article 94 (3) (a).
164.
UNCLOS Article 219.
165.
Koh TTB, ‘A Constitution for the Oceans’ Remarks by Tommy T.B. Koh of Singapore, President of the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, available via: http://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/koh_english.pdf. Accessed on 27 July 2022.
166.
Sekimizu (2014).
167.
Petrig (2020), pp. 114–117.
168.
Lucky (2015).
169.
IMO, Implications of the United Nations Convention on the Law of The Sea for the International Maritime Organization, Study by the Secretariat of the International Maritime Organization (30 January 2014), LEG/MISC.8, p. 7, available via: https://www.kuestenpatent-kroatien.at/LEG%20MISC%208-1.pdf. Accessed on 27 July 2022.
170.
Ibid, p. 7.
171.
Ibid, p. 8.
172.
Ibid, p. 8.
173.
Ibid, p. 10.
174.
Ibid, p. 10.
175.
Ibid, p. 10.
176.
Ibid. p. 10.
177.
Ibid, p. 11.
178.
Ibid, p. 11.
179.
Zhu and Xing (2021), p. 152.
180.
Beckman and Sun (2017), p. 235.
181.
Ibid, p. 236.
182.
IMO, Autonomous Shipping, https://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/HotTopics/Pages/Autonomous-shipping.aspx. Accessed on 27 July 2022.
183.
IMO, Maritime Safety Committee (MSC) 98th session 7–16 June 2017, https://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/MeetingSummaries/Pages/MSC-98th-session.aspx. Accessed on 27 July 2022.
184.
Ibid.
185.
IMO, Interim Guidelines for MASS Trials, MSC.1/Circ.1604 (14 June 2019), p. 1, available via: https://wwwcdn.imo.org/localresources/en/MediaCentre/HotTopics/Documents/MSC.1-Circ.1604%20-%20Interim%20Guidelines%20For%20Mass%20Trials%20(Secretariat).pdf. Accessed on 27 July 2022.
186.
MSC.1/Circ.1638.
187.
Ibid, para. 3.1.
188.
Ibid, para. 3.2.
189.
IMO, Autonomous Shipping, https://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/HotTopics/Pages/Autonomous-shipping.aspx. Accessed on 27 July 2022.
190.
The International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue (SAR).
191.
The International Convention on Load Lines (Load Lines).
192.
The International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships (Tonnage Convention).
193.
The Special Trade Passenger Ships Agreement (STP).
194.
The International Convention for Safe Containers (CSC)
195.
IMO, Autonomous Shipping, https://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/HotTopics/Pages/Autonomous-shipping.aspx. Accessed on 27 July 2022.
196.
MSC.1/Circ.1638, para. 5.1.
197.
MSC.1/Circ.1638.
198.
MSC.1/Circ.1638, appendix 2.
199.
MSC.1/Circ.1638, appendix 2, p. 18.
200.
IMO, Legal Committee, 108th session (LEG 108), 26–30 July 2021, https://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/MeetingSummaries/Pages/LEG-108th-.aspx. Accessed on 27 July 2022.
201.
Ibid.
202.
MSC.1/Circ.1638, paras. 5.2–5.3.
203.
Ibid, para. 5.2, appendix 2.
204.
Ibid, para. 5.4.
205.
Ibid, para. 5.5.
206.
Ibid, para. 5.6.
207.
Ibid, para. 5.7.
208.
Ibid, para. 5.8.
209.
IMSC.1/Circ.1638, para. 6.1.
210.
Ibid, para. 6.1.
211.
Ibid, para. 6.2.
212.
Ibid, para. 6.2.
213.
Ibid, para 6.3.
214.
Ibid, para. 6.4.
215.
Ibid, para. 6.5.
216.
Ibid, para. 6.6.
217.
Ibid, Section 5. According to this, the high-priority instruments are as follows: COLREG, SOLAS chapters II-1, II-2, III, IV, V, VI, VII, IX, XI-1 and XI-2, 1966 LL Convention and 1988 Protocol, 1979 SAR Convention, STCW Convention and Code; STCW-F Convention, FSS Code, IMSBC Code, IMDG Code, TONNAGE 1969, IBC Code and IGC Code: MSC.1/Circ.1638 para. 6.7.1.
218.
Ibid, para. 6.6. Accordingly, medium-priority instruments are as follows: SOLAS chapter XII, CSS Code, Grain Code, INF Code, Casualty Investigation Code, III Code, 2008 Intact Stability Code and Standards for owners’ inspection and maintenance of bulk carrier hatch covers.
219.
Ibid, para. 6.8.3.
220.
Ibid, para. 6.6. These include SOLAS chapters XIII and XIV, CSC Code, Polar Code, ISM Code, LSA Code, ISPS Code, FTP Code, RO Code, and ESP Code.
221.
Ibid, para. 6.9.3.
222.
Ibid.
223.
IMO, Legal Committee, 108th session (LEG 108), 26–30 July 2021, https://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/MeetingSummaries/Pages/LEG-108th-.aspx. Accessed on 27 July 2022.
224.
Ibid.
225.
Ibid.
226.
Ibid.
227.
Ibid.
228.
Ibid.
229.
Department for Transport, Future of transport regulatory review: maritime autonomy and remote operations (28 September 2021), available via: https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/future-of-transport-regulatory-review-maritime-autonomy-and-remote-operations/future-of-transport-regulatory-review-maritime-autonomy-and-remote-operations. Accessed on 27 July 2022.
230.
Ibid.
231.
Ibid.
232.
Ibid.
233.
Ibid.
234.
Ibid.
235.
Ibid.
236.
Ibid.
237.
Ibid.
238.
Ibid.
239.
Ibid.
240.
Ibid.
241.
Ibid.
242.
See Sect. 2.5.
243.
Ibid.
244.
Ibid.
245.
Ibid.
246.
Ibid.
247.
Ibid.
248.
Ibid.
249.
Ibid.
250.
O’Rourke (2022), p. 1.
251.
Australian Government Department of Defence (2020).
252.
US Department of Defense, Unmanned Systems Integrated Roadmap FY2013–2038 (2014), p. 20, available via: https://www.hsdl.org/?abstract&did=747559. Accessed on 27 July 2022.
253.
FY2013–2038, p. 20.
254.
Ibid, p. 20.
255.
Ibid, p. 20.
256.
Pedrozo (2020), p. 218.
257.
US Department of the Navy, Navy Unmanned Undersea Vehicle (UUV) Master Plan (9 November 2004) accessible via: https://www.hsdl.org/?abstract&did=708654. Accessed on 27 July 2022.
258.
Burgers and Romaniuk (2017).
259.
For instance, an aerial AMV detected a suspicious go-fast boat which led to the confiscation of illicit drugs: ‘Fire Scout Scores First-Ever Drug Bust’ (2010), https://www.defencetalk.com/fire-scout-scores-first-ever-drug-bust-25563/. Accessed on 27 July 2022.
260.
Vavasseur (2021).
261.
‘The First Indigenous and State of the Art Armed Unmanned Surface Vehicle-AUSV’, https://www.ulaq.global/. Accessed on 27 July 2022.
262.
Klein (2019), p. 247.
263.
Ibid, pp. 247–248.
264.
See Sect. 1.1.
265.
Mukherjee (2018), Securing the Maritime Commons: The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Naval Operations 7 [Observer Research Foundation (ORF)], ORF Occasional Paper No. 159, available via: https://www.orfonline.org/research/42497-a-i-in-naval-operations-exploring-possibilities-debating-ethics/. Accessed on 27 July 2022.
266.
Moore-Colyer (2016).
267.
Ibid.
268.
UNCLOS Article 19 (b).
269.
UNCLOS Article 19 (2) (f).
270.
At least in the US: see Norris (2013), p. 40.
271.
See Sect. 2.4.
272.
Klein (2019), p. 267.
273.
Norris (2013), p. 40.
274.
Klein (2019), p. 268.
275.
McLaughlin and Klein (2021), p. 400; UNCLOS Article 2.
276.
UNCLOS Article 19 (2) (c).
277.
UNCLOS Article 19 (e).
278.
UNCLOS Article 19 (f).
279.
UNCLOS Article 19 (j).
280.
McLaughlin and Klein (2021), p. 400.
281.
Klein (2019), p. 269.
282.
McLaughlin and Klein (2021), p. 401.
283.
Klein (2019), p. 270.
284.
Ibid, p. 270.
285.
UNCLOS Article 87.
286.
UNCLOS Article 110 (1).
287.
UNCLOS Article 110 (2).
288.
UNCLOS Article 110 (5).
289.
Klein (2019), p. 256.
290.
UNCLOS Article 108 (1).
291.
The United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, 1988. (UN Drug Convention).
292.
UN Drug Convention Article 1.
293.
UN Drug Convention Article 17 (1).
294.
UN Drug Convention Article 17 (2).
295.
UN Drug Convention Article 17 (3) (4).
296.
UN Drug Convention Article 17 (10).
297.
See also McLaughlin and Klein (2021).
298.
Klein (2019), p. 259.
299.
UN Drug Convention Article 17 (3).
300.
UN Drug Convention Article 17 (5).
301.
UN Drug Convention Article 17 (8).
302.
UN Drug Convention Article 17 (11).
303.
Jarocki (2018).
304.
Ibid.
305.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), UNODC provides a technological edge to address drug trafficking on the Mekong River, https://www.unodc.org/roseap/2021/09/drug-trafficking-mekong-river/story.html. Accessed on 27 July 2022.
306.
Keller (2014).
307.
Klein (2019), p. 259.
308.
McLaughlin and Klein (2021), p. 413.
309.
Klein (2019), p. 263.
310.
Klein (2019), p. 263.
311.
See Sect. 4.3.
312.
Klein (2019), p. 263.
313.
McLaughlin and Klein (2021), p. 413.
314.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), Legislative Guide for the Implementation of the Protocol Against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, Supplementing the United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime, para. 100, available via: https://www.unodc.org/pdf/crime/legislative_guides/04%20Legislative%20guide_Smuggling%20of%20Migrants%20Protocol.pdf. Accessed on 27 July 2022.
315.
UNCLOS Article 98 (1) (a), (b). SOLAS Chapter V also provides a similar obligation for the master of a vessel by stating that ‘The master of a ship at sea which is in a position to be able to provide assistance on receiving a signal from any source that persons are in distress at sea, is bound to proceed with all speed to their assistance, if possible informing them or the search and rescue service that the ship is doing so’: SOLAS Chapter V Regulation 33 (1).
316.
MSC.1/Circ.1638.
317.
Pritchett (2015), p. 208.
318.
Ibid, p. 209.
319.
SAR Annex, Chapter 1, 1.3.1.
320.
Ibid, 1.3.2.
321.
Pritchett (2015), p. 209.
322.
UNCLOS Article 98 (2).
323.
Calley et al. (2016), p. 515.
324.
Ibid, p. 515.
325.
UN Human Rights Council Resolution, Mandate of the Special Rapporteur on the implications for human rights of the environmentally sound management and disposal of hazardous substances and waste (Adopted 29 September 2011), 18/11, A/HRC/18/L.6, available via: https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/LTD/G11/164/65/PDF/G1116465.pdf?OpenElement. Accessed on 27 July 2022.
326.
UNCLOS Article 210 (1)(2).
327.
UNCLOS Article 210 (5).
328.
Bella et al. (2021).
329.
Ibid, p. 1.
330.
O Brian (2018).
331.
Ibid.
332.
IMO, Maritime Cyber Risk, https://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Security/Pages/Cyber-security.aspx. Accessed on 27 July 2022.
333.
The Guidelines on Cyber Security on board Ships (version 4) issued by ICS, IUMI, BIMCO, OCIMF, INTERTANKO, INTERCARGO, InterManager, WSC and SYBAss, p. 3, available via: https://wwwcdn.imo.org/localresources/en/OurWork/Security/Documents/ANNEX%20Guidelines%20on%20Cyber%20Security%20Onboard%20Ships%20v.4.pdf. Accessed on 27 July 2022.
334.
Ibid, p. 12.
335.
Ibid, p. 15.
336.
IMO, Maritime Cyber Risk, https://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Security/Pages/Cyber-security.aspx. Accessed on 27 July 2022.
337.
Ibid.
338.
IMO, Guidelines on Maritime Cyber Risk Management, MSC-FAL.1/Circ.3 (5 July 2017), para. 2.1.4, available via: https://wwwcdn.imo.org/localresources/en/OurWork/Security/Documents/MSC-FAL.1-Circ.3%20-%20Guidelines%20On%20Maritime%20Cyber%20Risk%20Management%20(Secretariat).pdf. Accessed on 27 July 2022.
339.
Ibid, para. 3.5.
340.
Petrig (2020), p. 108.
341.
Allen (2018b).
342.
Petrig (2020), pp. 109–110.
343.
Klein (2019), p. 260.
344.
Ibid, p. 260.
345.
Ibid, p. 260.
346.
Petrig (2020), p. 108.
347.
Perper (2018).
348.
Associated Press (2019).
349.
Hubbard et al. (2019).
350.
Kearney (2019).
351.
Turak (2019).
352.
SUA Article 1 (1) (a).
353.
Kraska (2017), pp. 13–14.
354.
Klein (2019), p. 262.
355.
Kraska (2017), p. 16, Klein (2019), p. 262.
356.
Petrig (2020), p. 112.
357.
Ibid, p. 112.
358.
Ibid, p. 113.
359.
Ibid, p. 113.
360.
Ibid, p. 113.
361.
It has been submitted that since the piracy definition of UNCLOS involves acts committed by the crew or the passengers of a private ship or a private aircraft, a cyberattack from a land-based location on an AMV would not be considered piracy: Pritchett (2015), p. 215.
362.
Petrig (2020), p. 119.
363.
Ibid, p. 120.
364.
Ibid, pp. 121–123.
365.
Ibid, p. 130.
366.
Klein (2019), p. 247.
367.
Klein (2019), pp. 262–263.
368.
Kraska (2017), p. 20.
369.
Ibid, p. 20.
370.
Ibid, p. 20.
371.
Klein (2019), p. 271.
372.
Kraska (2010), p. 64.

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Durmuş, A.N. (2023). The Intersection Between Law and Technology in Maritime Law. In: Noussia, K., Channon, M. (eds) The Regulation of Automated and Autonomous Transport. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-32356-0_5

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