Abstract
This chapter provides an analytical review of formal civilian oversight for democratic policing, outlining the benefits as well as the key challenges such oversight encounters. It extends the comparative analysis about formal civilian oversight for democratic policing by providing a much more international perspective, beyond Africa, including examples of the use of the various classifications and approaches to such oversight. Currently, only two African nations (Kenya and South Africa) have mechanisms of independent civilian oversight of police accountability. Drawing on the author’s field experience, it then offers some insights on the required framework and environment for overcoming the civilian oversight challenges in pursuit of much more improved police accountability and better internal security in Africa.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
AAAJD. (2019a). Police accountability in Africa Conference. Retrieved from https://aaajd.org/police-accountability-in-africaconference/
AAAJD. (2019b). Conference communique, International Conference on Police Accountability in Africa. Retrieved from https://aaajd.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/CONFERENCE-COMMUNIQUE-INTERNATIONAL-CONFERENCE-ON-POLICE-ACCOUNTABILITY-IN-AFRICA.pdf
Addo, K. O. (2022). British colonial rule: Its impact on police corruption in Ghana. International NGO Journal, 17(2), 12–25. https://doi.org/10.5897/INGOJ2022.0363
Africa, S. (2016). Accountable and legitimate security through civilian democratic oversight and control. [Think Piece No. 1, Learning Lab on SSG in Africa]. Retrieved from https://issat.dcaf.ch/download/108715/1964963/Think%20Piece%20No%201_Civilian%20democratic%20oversight.pdf
Aitchison, A., & Blaustein, J. (2013). Policing for democracy or democratically responsive policing? Examining the limits of externally driven police reform. European Journal of Criminology, 10(4), 496–511. https://doi.org/10.1177/2F1477370812470780
Ajilore, O. (2018, June 25). How civilian review boards can further police accountability and improve community relations. [Scholars Strategy Network]. Retrieved from https://scholars.org/print/pdf/node/16105
Alemika, E. E. O. (2011). Policing oversight in Africa: Prospects, opportunities and challenges. In S. Tait, C. Frank, & I. Ndung’u (Eds.), Workshop report–policing oversight: Advances, challenges and prospects (pp. 3–8). Institute for Security Studies.
Alemika, E. E. O. (2018). The constraints of rights-based policing in Africa. In E. E. O. Alemika, M. Ruteere, & S. Howell (Eds.), Policing reform in Africa: Moving towards a rights-based approach in a climate of terrorism, insurgency and serious violent crime (pp. 14–43). APCOF.
Alemika, E. E. O. (2019, July 3–4). Police accountability in Africa. [Keynote Paper for the Conference on Police Accountability in Africa: Achieving Effective, Legitimate and Sustainable Security Sector Reforms]. Retrieved from https://aaajd.org/wpcontent/uploads/2019/09/International-Conference-on-Police-Accountability-in-Africa-Report_Kenya.pdf
Ali, M. U., & Nicholson-Crotty, S. (2021). Examining the accountability-performance link: The case of citizen oversight of police. Public Performance & Management Review, 44(3), 523–559. https://doi.org/10.1080/15309576.2020.1806086
Ali, M. U., & Pirog, M. (2019). Social accountability and institutional change: The case of citizen oversight of police. Public Administration Review, 79(3), 411–426. https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.13055
Alpert, G. P., Cawthray, T., Rojek, J., & Ferdik, F. (2016). Citizen oversight in the United States and Canada: Applying outcome measures and evidence-based concepts. In T. Prenzler & G. den Heyer (Eds.), Civilian oversight of police: Advancing accountability in law enforcement (pp. 179–204). CRC Press/Taylor and Francis.
Amagnya, M. A. (2023). Police officers’ support for corruption: Examining the impact of police culture. Policing: An International Journal, 46(1), 84–99. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-06-2022-0085
Amnesty International. (2015). Police oversight. Amnesty International Dutch Section.
APCOF. (n.d.). Organization strategy. Retrieved from http://apcof.org/about-us/
Asbjørnsen, K. (2017). Succeeding with security sector reform: How important is local ownership. The SAIS Europe Journal of Global Affairs, 20(Spring), 75–83.
Attard, B. (2010). Oversight of law enforcement is beneficial and needed—Both inside and out. Pace Law Review, 30(5), 1548–1561. http://digitalcommons.pace.edu/plr/vol30/iss5/12
Auerbach, J. N. (2003). Police accountability in Kenya, African. Human Rights Law Journal, 3(2), 275–313.
Aydin-Aitchison, A., & Mermutluoğlu, C. (2020). Mapping human rights to democratic policing through the ECHR. Security and Human Rights, 30(1–4), 72–99. https://doi.org/10.1163/18750230-03001001
Ball, N. (2010). The evolution of the security sector reform agenda. In M. Sedra (Ed.), The future of security sector reform (pp. 29–44). The Centre for International Governance Innovation.
Bangura, I. (2018). Democratically transformed or business as usual: The Sierra Leone police and democratic policing in Sierra Leone, stability. International Journal of Security & Development, 7(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.5334/sta.601
Bayley, D. H. (2001). Democratizing the police abroad: What to do and how to do it. National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of Justice.
Bayley, D. H. (2006). Changing the guard: Developing democratic police abroad. Oxford University Press.
Bayley, D. (2015). Human rights in policing: A global assessment. Policing and Society, 25(5), 540–547. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2014.895352
Beardall, T. R. (2022). Police legitimacy regimes and the suppression of citizen oversight in response to police violence. Criminology, 60(4), 740–765. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9125.12321
Berg, J. (2013). Civilian oversight of police in South Africa: From the ICD to the IPID. Police Practice and Research, 14(2), 144–154. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2013.767094
Berg, J. (2021). Policing reform in the context of plural policing: The south African case. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 5(1), 412–424. https://doi.org/10.1093/police/paaa075
Berg, J., & Howell, S. (2016). Civilian oversight of police in Africa: Trends and challenges. In T. Prenzler & G. den Heyer (Eds.), Civilian oversight of police: Advancing accountability in law enforcement (pp. 121–138). CRC Press/Taylor and Francis.
Bierschenk, T. (2017). Who are the police in Africa? In J. Beek, M. Gӧpfert, O. Owen, & J. Steinberg (Eds.), Police in Africa: The street-level view (pp. 103–120). Oxford University Press.
Bittner, E. (1980). The functions of the police in modern society. Oelgeschlager, Gunn and Hain Publishers.
Bobb, M., & Pearsall, A. (2010). The changing mission of police monitoring. Community Policing Dispatch, 3(1), 43.
Boghani, P. (2016, July 13). Is civilian oversight the answer to distrust of police? Frontline. Retrieved from https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/is-civilian-oversight-the-answer-to-distrust-of-police/
Bonner, M. D. (2020). What democratic policing is … and is not. Policing and Society, 30(9), 1044–1060. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2019.1649405
Bonner, M. D., Seri, G., Kubal, M. R., & Kempa, M. (Eds.). (2018). Police abuse in contemporary democracies. Palgrave Macmillan/Springer Nature.
Bourke, C. (n.d.). Police complaints, civilian oversight, democracy. Retrieved from https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/view/34184047/police-complaints-civilian-oversight-democracy-scadding-court-
Bovens, M., & Wille, A. (2021). Indexing watchdog accountability powers: A framework for assessing the accountability capacity of independent oversight institutions. Regulation & Governance, 15(3), 856–876. https://doi.org/10.1111/rego.12316
Briggs, W. (2017). Police oversight: Civilian oversight boards and lessons learned from our neighbors to the north. Suffolk Transnational Law Review, 40(1), 139–164.
Bruce, D. (2020). Are South Africa’s cops accountable? Results of independent police investigative directorate investigations. [APCOF Research Paper 25]. APCOF.
Bruce, D. (2021). The African police accountability agenda in the 2020s: Continuity and disruption. APCOF.
Byrne, J., & Priestley, W. (2017). Police oversight mechanisms in the Council of Europe Member States. Council of Europe Publishing.
CACOLE. (n.d.). About us. Retrieved from http://www.cacole.ca/index-eng.shtml
Calderon, E. L., & Hernandez-Figueroa, M. (2013). Citizen oversight committees in law enforcement. Center for Public Policy, University of California. Retrieved from http://cpp.fullerton.edu/pdf/cpp_policeoversight_report.pdf
Cao, L., Huang, L., & Sun, I. Y. (2014). Policing in Taiwan: From authoritarianism to democracy. Routledge.
CAPG. (n.d.). Who we are? Retrieved from http://capg.ca/who-we-are/
Cheng, T., & Qu, J. (2022). Regulatory intermediaries and the challenge of democratic policing. Criminology & Public Policy, 21(1), 59–81. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12573
Choi, K. J. (2015). Politics of law enforcement: Policing and police reform in new democracies (Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Washington). Seattle.
CHRI. (n.d.). What we do: Police reform. Retrieved from https://www.humanrightsinitiative.org/content/police-reforms
CHRI. (2022, May 17). Independent investigations must be conducted into the killing of Albert Donkor. [Press Release]. Retrieved from https://3news.com/nkoranza-mayhem-parliament-interior-ministry-told-to-urgently-create-police-complaints-commission/
Cintrón Perino, J. R. (2004). Developments in citizen oversight of law enforcement. The Urban Lawyer, 36(2), 387–398.
City of Austin, Office of the Police Monitor. (2018). Police oversight advisory working group recommendations. Office of the Police Monitor, City of Austin.
Clarke, S. (2009). Arrested oversight: A comparative analysis and case study of how civilian oversight of the police should function and how it fails. Columbia Journal of Law and Social Problems, 43(1), 1–49. http://jlsp.law.columbia.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/8/2017/03/43-Clarke.pdf
CRCC. (2009). Police investigating police: Final public report. CRCC.
Crowell, M. (2016). Police officers’ attitudes toward civilian oversight mechanisms in Ontario, Canada. [PhD thesis, University of Waterloo].
Cruz, J. M. (2015). Police misconduct and political legitimacy in Central America. Journal of Latin American Studies, 47(2), 251–283. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022216X15000085
DCAF. (2015a). The security sector: Roles and responsibilities in security provision, management and oversight. [SSR Backgrounder Series]. DCAF.
DCAF. (2015b). The police: Roles and responsibilities in good security sector governance. [SSR Backgrounder Series]. DCAF.
DCAF. (2019). Police reform: Applying the principles of good security sector governance to policing. [SSR Backgrounder Series]. DCAF.
De Angelis, J., Rosenthal, R., & Buchner, B. (2016a). Civilian oversight of law enforcement: A review of the strengths and weaknesses of various models. NACOLE.
De Angelis, J., Rosenthal, R., & Buchner, B. (2016b). Civilian oversight of law enforcement: Assessing the evidence. NACOLE.
Decker, S. H., & Shjarback, J. A. (2020). Options for increasing civilian oversight of the police. In C. M. Katz & E. R. Maguire (Eds.), Transforming the police: Thirteen key reforms (pp. 113–125). Waveland Press.
den Boer, M., & Pyo, C. Scheltus, C., & Mathai-Luke, R. (2011). Good policing: Instruments, models and practices. Singapore: Asia-Europe Foundation and Jakarta, Indonesia: Hanns Seidel Foundation Indonesia. Retrieved from https://www.asef.org/images/docs/Good%20Policing%20-%20Instruments,%20Models%20and%20Practices%20-%20FINAL.pdf
den Heyer, G., & Beckley, A. (2016). Police independent oversight in Australia and New Zealand. In T. Prenzler & G. den Heyer (Eds.), Civilian oversight of police: Advancing accountability in law enforcement (pp. 205–225). CRC Press/Taylor and Francis.
Diallo, F. S. (2019). State policing in sub-Saharan Africa: The weakest link of security sector governance. L’ Harmattan.
Diaz, E. I. (2009). Police oversight. In J. de Rivera (Ed.), Handbook on building cultures of peace (pp. 287–301). Peace Psychology Book Series, Springer Nature.
Eckhard, S. (2016). The challenges and lessons learned in supporting security sector reform. Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung.
Ellison, G. (2007). A blueprint for democratic policing anywhere in the world? Police reform, political transition, and conflict resolution in Northern Ireland. Police Quarterly, 10(3), 243–269. https://doi.org/10.1177/2F1098611107304735
EPAC. (2011). Police oversight principles. Retrieved from https://igp.gouvernement.lu/dam-assets/service/attributions/police-oversight-principles.pdf
Evenson, M. (n.d.). Embracing citizen oversight: A police executive’s guide to improving accountability. Retrieved from https://www.coursehero.com/file/44542895/EvensonProjFinal311-1doc/
Fairley, S. R. (2020). Survey says? U.S. cities double down on civilian oversight of police despite challenges and controversy, Cardozo Law Review de Novo. Retrieved from http://cardozolawreview.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/FAIRLEY.DN_.2019.pdf
Faull, A. (2013). Monitoring the performance of police oversight agencies. [APCOF Policy Paper 8]. Retrieved from http://apcof.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/No-8-Monitoring-Performance-of-Police-Oversight-Agencies-Andrew-Faull.pdf
Feys, Y., Verhage, A., & Boels, D. (2018). A state-of-the-art review on police accountability: What do we know from empirical studies? International Journal of Police Science and Management, 20(3), 225–239. https://doi.org/10.1177/2F1461355718786297
Fichtelberg, A. (2013). Democratic policing and state capacity in an integrated world. In G. Andreopoulos (Ed.), Policing across Borders: Law enforcement networks and the challenges of crime control (pp. 11–26). Springer Science+Business Media.
Filstad, C., & Gottschalk, P. (2011). Performance evaluation of police oversight agencies. Policing and Society, 21(1), 96–109. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2010.540653
Finn, P. (2001). Citizen review of police: Approaches and implementation. Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice, US Department of Justice.
FJP. (2021). Promoting independent police accountability mechanisms: Key principles for civilian oversight of law enforcement. Retrieved from https://fairandjustprosecution.org/issues/promoting-community-trust-and-police-accountability/
Flores-Macίas, G. A., & Zarkin, J. (2021). The militarization of law enforcement: Evidence from Latin America. Perspectives on Politics, 19(2), 519–538. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592719003906
Francis, D. J. (2012). Introduction: Understanding policing in transition societies in Africa. In D. J. Francis (Ed.), Policing in Africa (pp. 3–36). Palgrave Macmillan/Springer Nature.
Friedman, B. (2017). Unwarranted: Policing without permission. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
Friedman, B., & Ponomarenko, M. (2015). Democratic policing. New York University Law Review, 90(6), 1827–1907. https://www.nyulawreview.org/issues/volume-90-number-6/
Fulbright, D. W. (2019). The benefit of independent citizen review in police critical incidents. [A Leadership White Paper Submitted in Partial Fulfillment Required for Graduation from the Leadership Command College, Sam Houston State University]. Retrieved from https://shsu-ir.tdl.org/handle/20.500.11875/2643
Goldsmith, A., & Lewis, C. (Eds.). (2000). Civilian oversight of policing: Governance, democracy and human rights. Hart Publishing/Bloomsbury.
Goold, B. J. (2016). Policing and human rights. In B. Bradford, B. Jauregui, I. Loader, & J. Steinberg (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of global policing (pp. 226–240). Sage.
Govender, D., & Pillay, K. (2022). Policing in South Africa: A critical evaluation. Insight on Africa, 14(1), 40–56. https://doi.org/10.1177/2F09750878211048169
Greene, J. R. (2007). Make police oversight independent and transparent. Criminology and Public Policy, 6(4), 747–754. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9133.2007.00477.x
Guittet, E.-P., Vavoula, N., Tsoukala, A., & Baylis, M. (2022). Democratic oversight of the police. EU.
Guzmán-Sánchez, R., & Espriú-Guerra, A. (2014). External police oversight in Mexico: Experiences, challenges, and lessons learned, stability. International Journal of Security & Development, 3(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.5334/sta.ek
Haberfeld, M., & Gideon, L. (2008). Introduction: Policing is hard on democracy, or democracy is hard on policing? In M. R. Haberfeld & I. Cerrah (Eds.), Comparative policing: The struggle for democratization (pp. 1–12). Sage.
Hall, S. K. (2017). Jamaica moves to regulate the use of force in law enforcement. Council on Hemispheric Affairs. Retrieved from http://www.coha.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/Jamaica-Moves-to-Regulate-the-Use-of-Force-in-Law-Enforcement.pdf
Harris, D., & Katusiimeh, M. W. (2019). Public administration and corruption: A comparative case study of the police services in Ghana and Uganda. In A. Graycar (Ed.), Handbook on corruption, ethics and integrity in public administration (pp. 255–273). Edward Elgar Publishing Limited.
Harris, F. C. (2013). Holding police accountability theory to account. [Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Portsmouth].
Hills, A. (2017). Epilogue. In J. Beek, M. Gӧpfert, O. Owen, & J. Steinberg (Eds.), Police in Africa: The street-level view (pp. 263–268). Oxford University Press.
Ho, L. K.-K., Chan, J. K.-H., Chan, Y.-t., den Heyer, G., Hsu, J.-S., & Hirai, A. (2022). Professionalism versus democracy? Historical and institutional analysis of police oversight mechanisms in three Asian jurisdictions. Crime, Law and Social Change, 77(1), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-021-09981-y
Hope, K. R. (2015). In pursuit of democratic policing: An analytical review and assessment of police reforms in Kenya. International Journal of Police Science and Management, 17(2), 91–97. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461355715580915
Hope, K. R. (Ed.). (2016). Police corruption and police reforms in developing societies. CRC Press/Taylor and Francis.
Hope, K. R. (2017). Corruption and governance in Africa: Swaziland [Eswatini], Kenya, Nigeria. Palgrave Macmillan/Springer Nature.
Hope, K. R. (2018). Institutions and the culture dimension of corruption in Nigeria. Crime, Law and Social Change, 70(4), 503–523. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-018-9779-6
Hope, K. R. (2019a). Civilian oversight for democratic policing: Concept, models and challenges. In Research working paper. Development Practice International.
Hope, K. R. (2019b). The police corruption “crime problem” in Kenya. Security Journal, 32(2), 85–101. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41284-018-0149-y
Hope, K. R. (2020). Civilian oversight of the police: The case of Kenya. The Police Journal: Theory, Practice and Principles, 93(3), 202–228. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032258X19860727
Hryniewicz, D. (2011). Civilian oversight as a public good: Democratic policing, civilian oversight, and the social. Contemporary Justice Review, 14(1), 77–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/10282580.2011.541078
IACP. (2000). Police accountability and citizen review. IACP.
INDECOM. (n.d.). Impact of INDECOM: Changing a culture of impunity. Retrieved from https://www.indecom.gov.jm/aboutus/achievements
IPCA-New Zealand. (n.d.). Why police oversight matters. Retrieved from https://most0010142.expert.services/Site/about-us/Why-Police-oversight-matters.aspx
IPID. (2013). Annual Performance Plan 2013/2014. Retrieved from http://www.ipid.gov.za/sites/default/files/documents/AAP%202013-14.pdf
IPID. (2020). Strategic plan 2020–2025. IPID.
IPOA. (2019). Strategic plan 2019–2024. IPOA.
Ivković, S. J., & Borovec, K. (2018). Protecting human rights: A complex story of the democratization of the Croatian police. International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, 42(1), 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1080/01924036.2016.1270841
Jackson, P. (2018). Introduction: Second-generation security sector reform. Journal of Intervention and State-Building, 12(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1080/17502977.2018.1426384
Jerome, R. (2006). Credibility, impartiality, and independence in citizen oversight. In J. Cintrón Perino (Ed.), Citizen oversight of law enforcement (pp. 21–45). American Bar Association.
Jibrin, H., & Yandaki, U. A. (2022). Historical development of police and policing in Africa. In U. Tar & D. M. Dawud (Eds.), Policing criminality and insurgency in Africa: Perspectives on the changing wave of law enforcement (pp. 62–78). Lexington Books/Rowman and Littlefield Publishing Group.
Jones, T., & van Steden, R. (2013). Democratic police governance in comparative perspective: Reflections from England & Wales and The Netherlands. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 36(3), 561–576. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-07-2012-0059
Kang, W., & Nalla, M. K. (2011). Perceived citizen cooperation, police operational philosophy, and job satisfaction on support for civilian oversight of the police in South Korea. Asian Criminology, 6(2), 177–189. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11417-011-9116-9
Karpiak, K. G., Mulla, S., & Pérez, R. L. (2022). The plurality of police oversight: A method for building upon lessons learned for understanding an evolving strategy, policing: An. International Journal, 45(4), 648–661. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-08-2021-0117
Kessing, P. V. (2018). Police oversight mechanisms. [Note]. Retrieved from https://www.humanrights.dk/sites/humanrights.dk/files/media/dokumenter/udgivelser/hrs/2018/police_complaint_mechanisms_dihr2018.pdf
Kim, A. (2017). Challenges facing new oversight bodies. [CAPI Brief]. Center for the Advancement of Public Integrity, Columbia University. Retrieved from https://www.law.columbia.edu/public-integrity/challenges-facing-new-oversight-bodies
King, K. (2015). Effectively implementing civilian oversight boards to ensure police accountability and strengthen police-community relations. Hastings Race and Poverty Law Journal, 12(1), 91–120.
Kunetski, K., & Barkway, K. (2014). Independence in civilian-led investigations of the police. In I. Scott (Ed.), Issues in civilian oversight of policing in Canada (pp. 163–184). Carswell/Thompson Reuters.
Kwon, J., & Wortley, S. (2022). Policing the police: Public perceptions of civilian oversight in Canada. Race and Justice, 12(4), 644–668. https://doi.org/10.1177/2F2153368720924560
Lee, H. D., Collins, P. A., Hsieh, M.-L., Boateng, F. D., & Brody, D. (2017). Officer attitudes toward citizen review and professional accountability. International Journal of Police Science & Management, 19(2), 63–71. https://doi.org/10.1177/2F1461355717695320
Lister, S., & Rowe, M. (2016). Accountability of policing. In S. Lister & M. Rowe (Eds.), Accountability of policing (pp. 1–17). Routledge.
Livingston, D. (2004). The unfulfilled promise of citizen review. Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law, 1(2), 653–669.
Livingston, S. (2013). Africa’s information revolution: Implications for crime, policing, and citizen security. [Research Paper No. 5]. African Center for Strategic Studies.
Manning, P. K. (2010). Democratic policing in a changing world. Routledge/Taylor and Francis.
Marenin, O. (2014). Styles of policing and economic development in African states. Public Administration and Development, 34(3), 149–161. https://doi.org/10.1002/pad.1683
Mawby, R. I., & Smith, K. (2017). Civilian oversight of the police in England and Wales: The election of police and crime commissioners in 2012 and 2016. International Journal of Police Science & Management, 19(1), 23–30. https://doi.org/10.1177/2F1461355716677875
McDevitt, A., & Bullock, J. (2021). Resisting corruption along drug trafficking routes: An analysis of criminal justice bodies in Latin America and West Africa. TI.
Mehta, S. (n.d.). Holding police to account for misconduct: Police-specific complaints agencies. Retrieved from http://www.humanrightsinitiative.org/old/programs/aj/police/res_mat/police_specific_complaints_agencies.pdf
Miller, J. (with the assistance of Merrick, C.). (2002, May 5–8). Civilian oversight of policing: Lessons from the literature. [Paper prepared for the Global Meeting on Civilian Oversight of Police]. Retrieved from https://www.vera.org/publications/civilian-oversightof-policing-lessons-from-the-literature
Mugari, I. (2021). Evaluations of selected civilian oversight institutions for police accountability in the Republic of Zimbabwe. Police Practice and Research, 22(1), 606–622. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2020.1831921
Mugari, I. (2023). Civilian police oversight: A contemporary review of police oversight mechanisms in Europe, Australia and Africa. Journal of Applied Security Research, 18(1), 106–127. https://doi.org/10.1080/19361610.2021.1918524
Mugari, I., & Obioha, E. E. (2022). Curtailing police discretionary powers: Civil action against the police in Zimbabwe. Cogent Social Sciences, 8(1), 2075132. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2022.2075132
Mugari, I., & Olutola, A. A. (2022). In search for the best police oversight mechanism for Zimbabwe: The imperative for an independent police complaints board. Journal of Applied Security Research. [Advance online publication]. https://doi.org/10.1080/19361610.2022.2105283
Murphy, C., & McKenna, P. F. (n.d.). Police Investigating Police: A Critical Analysis of the Literature. Retrieved from https://www.crcc-ccetp.gc.ca/en/police-investigating-police-critical-analysis-literature
NACOLE. (n.d.). Thirteen principles for effective oversight. Retrieved from https://www.nacole.org/principles
NACOLE. (2015, January 9). Building legitimacy and public trust through civilian oversight. [Testimony submitted by the National Association for Civilian Oversight of Law Enforcement to the President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing]. Retrieved from https://d3n8a8pro7vhmx.cloudfront.net/nacole/pages/115/attachments/original/1458135958/NACOLE-Written-Testimony-for-the-Presidents-Task-Force-on-21st-Century-Policing-Final1.pdf?1458135958
Nagle, L. E. (2010). Corruption of politicians, law enforcement, and the judiciary in Mexico and complicity across the border. Small Wars & Insurgencies, 21(1), 95–122. https://doi.org/10.1080/09592310903561544
Nalla, M. K. (2016). Police accountability and citizen oversight in emerging democracies in Asia. In T. Prenzler & G. den Heyer (Eds.), Civilian oversight of police: Advancing accountability in law enforcement (pp. 139–158). CRC Press/Taylor and Francis.
Nalla, M. K., & Mamayek, C. (2013). Democratic policing, police accountability, and citizen oversight in Asia: An exploratory study. Police Practice and Research, 14(2), 117–129. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2013.767091
Ndifuna, M. (2020, December 2). Uganda needs police oversight commission, Monitor. Retrieved from https://www.monitor.co.ug/uganda/oped/commentary/uganda-needs-police-oversight-commission-3215988
Newham, G., & Faull, A. (2011). Protector or predator? Tackling police corruption in South Africa. Institute for Security Studies.
Nix, J., Wolfe, S. E., & Tregle, B. (2018). Police officers’ attitudes toward citizen advisory councils, policing: An. International Journal, 41(4), 418–434. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-01-2018-0019
Ofer, U. (2016). Getting it right: Building effective civilian review boards to oversee police. Seton Hall Law Review, 46(4), 1033–1062. https://scholarship.shu.edu/shlr/vol46/iss4/2
OPCC. (2019). Annual report 2018/2019. OPCC.
Ortega, D. E. (2018, March 20). The challenge of improving police behavior in Latin America. [Brookings Report]. Retrieved from https://www.brookings.edu/research/the-challenge-of-improving-police-behavior-in-latin-america/
OSCE. (2009). Guidebook on democratic policing. OSCE.
O’Shea, L. (2022). Democratic police reform, security sector reform, anti-corruption and spoilers: Lessons from Georgia. Conflict, Security & Development, 22(4), 387–409. https://doi.org/10.1080/14678802.2022.2121916
O’Shea, L. (2023). Why democratic police reform mostly fails and sometimes succeeds: Police reform and low state capacity, authoritarianism and neo-patrimonial politics (in the former Soviet Union). Policing and Society, 33(3), 245–263. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2022.2106983
Pino, N. W. (2009). Developing democratic policing in the Caribbean: The case of Trinidad and Tobago. Caribbean Journal of Criminology and Public Safety, 14(1&2), 214–258.
Pino, N. W., & Wiatrowski, M. D. (2006). The principles of democratic policing. In N. W. Pino & M. D. Wiatrowski (Eds.), Democratic policing in transitional and developing countries (pp. 69–98). Ashgate/Routledge/Taylor and Francis.
Policing Project. (n.d.). Strengthening policing through democratic governance. Retrieved from https://static1.squarespace.com/static/58a33e881b631bc60d4f8b31/t/59dfa32aa803bb57bb93316c/1507828522861/Policing+Project+2-pager_8.21.17.pdf
Ponomarenko, M., & Friedman, B. (2017). Democratic accountability and policing. In E. Luna (Ed.), Reforming criminal justice (Policing) (Vol. 2, pp. 5–25). The Academy for Justice, Arizona State University.
Porter, L. E. (2013). Beyond “oversight”: A problem-oriented approach to police reform. Police Practice and Research, 14(2), 169–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2013.767096
Prado, M. M., Trebilcock, M., & Hartford, P. (2012). Police reform in violent democracies in Latin America. Hague Journal on the Rule of Law, 4(2), 252–285. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1876404512000164
Prasad, D. (2006). Strengthening democratic policing and accountability in the commonwealth Pacific. Sur - International Journal on Human Rights, 3(5), 108–131. https://sur.conectas.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/sur5-eng-devika-prasad.pdf
Prateeppornnarong, D. (2019). The independent systems for handling police complaints in Thailand: A brief assessment. Thai Journal of Public Administration, 17(1), 9–33.
Prateeppornnarong, D., & Young, R. (2019). A critique of the internal complaints system of the Thai police. Policing and Society, 29(1), 18–35. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2017.1356298
Prenzler, T. (2011). The evolution of police oversight in Australia. Policing and Society, 21(3), 284–303. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2011.570866
Prenzler, T., & Lewis, C. (2005). Performance indicators for police oversight agencies. Australian Journal of Public Administration, 64(2), 77–83. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8500.2005.00443.x
Prenzler, T., & Ronken, C. (2001). Models of police oversight: A critique. Policing and Society, 11(2), 151–180. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2001.9964860
President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing. (2015). Final report of the President’s task force on 21st century policing. Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, US Department of Justice.
Pruitt, W. R. (2010). The progress of democratic policing in post-apartheid South Africa. African Journal of Criminology and Justice Studies, 4(1), 116–140.
Ramsey, L. (2018). Strategies for inclusive and responsive police accountability. [PhD dissertation, Walden University]. Retrieved from https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/dissertations/6096/
Ramonate, M. (2022). A situational analysis of civilian police oversight agencies in the ministry of police and public safety, Lesotho. The Africa Governance Papers, 2(1), 10–31.
Roach, K. (2014). Models of civilian police review: The objectives and mechanisms of legal and political regulation of the police. The Criminal Law Quarterly, 61(1), 29–73.
Rogers, C. (2014). Maintaining democratic policing: The challenge for police leaders. Public Safety Leadership Research Focus, 2(2), 1–7.
Roque, P. C. (2021). Governing in the shadows: Angola’s securitized state. Oxford University Press.
Rosenthal, R. A. (2018). Perspectives of directors of civilian oversight of law enforcement agencies. Policing: An International Journal, 41(4), 435–447. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-01-2018-0018
Rosenthal, R. A. (2019). Independent critical incident investigation agencies: A unique form of police oversight. Albany Law Review, 83(3), 855–930.
Roth, L. (2015). External oversight of police conduct. [Briefing Paper No. 6]. NSW Parliamentary Research Service.
Rowe, M. (2020). Policing the police: Challenges of democracy and accountability. Policy Press, University of Bristol.
Roziere, B., & Walby, K. (2018). The expansion and normalization of police militarization in Canada. Critical Criminology, 26(1), 29–48. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10612-017-9378-3
Sajor, A. (2015). Ideal police oversight review: The next piece of the community policing puzzle (Unpublished MA thesis, naval postgraduate school). Monterrey.
Schaap, D. (2021). Police trust-building strategies. A socio-institutional, comparative approach. Policing and Society, 31(3), 304–320. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2020.1726345
Scheye, E. (2018). The effectiveness of police accountability mechanisms: What works and the way ahead. USAID.
Scott, I., & Lisitsyna, M. (2021). Who polices the police? The role of independent agencies in criminal investigations of state agents. Open Society Foundations.
Sen, S. (2010). Enforcing police accountability through civilian oversight. Sage Publications.
Seyffert, P. (2017, September 13). Can professional civilian oversight improve community-police relations? The Police Chief Online. Retrieved from http://www.policechiefmagazine.org/can-professional-civilian-oversight-improve-community-police-relations/?ref=4d1adf5ce5c011b2e158e9824e61872e
Shiltson, T. (2015). Democratic policing, community policing and the fallacy of conflation in international police development missions. International Journal of Police Science & Management, 17(4), 207–215. https://doi.org/10.1177/2F1461355715618331
Sigsworth, R. (2019). Harnessing public engagement for police accountability in Africa. [Africa Report 21, Institute for Security Studies]. Retrieved from https://issafrica.s3.amazonaws.com/site/uploads/ar21-1.pdf
Sklansky, D. A. (2008). Democracy and the police. Stanford University Press.
Stageman, D. L., Napolitano, N. M., & Buchner, B. (2018). New approaches to data-driven civilian oversight of law enforcement: An introduction to the second NACOLE/CJPR special issue. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 29(2), 111–127. https://doi.org/10.1177/0887403416673415
Stapleton, T. (2011). African police and soldiers in colonial Zimbabwe, 1923–80. University of Rochester Press.
Stelkia, K. (2020). An exploratory study on police oversight in British Columbia: The dynamics of accountability for Royal Canadian Mounted Police and municipal police. SAGE Open, 10(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1177/2F2158244019899088
Stephens, D. W., Scrivner, E., & Cambareri, J. F. (2018). Civilian oversight of the police in major cities. Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, US Department of Justice.
Stone, C., & Bobb, M. (2002, May 5–8). Civilian oversight of the police in democratic societies. [Paper prepared for the Global Meeting on Civilian Oversight of Police, Los Angeles, CA]. Retrieved from https://www.vera.org/publications/civilian-oversight-of-the-police-indemocratic-societies
Stone, C. E., & Ward, H. H. (2000). Democratic policing: A framework for action. Policing and Society, 10(1), 11–45. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2000.9964829
Stuurman, Z. (2020). Policing inequality and the inequality of policing: A look at the militarization of policing around the world, focusing on Brazil and South Africa. South African Journal of International Affairs, 27(1), 43–66. https://doi.org/10.1080/10220461.2020.1748103
Tabassi, T., & Dey, A. (2016). Police militarization is global. Retrieved from https://wri-irg.org/en/story/2016/police-militarisation-global.
Terrill, W., & Ingram, J. R. (2015). Citizen complaints against the police: An eight-city examination. Police Quarterly, 19(2), 150–179. https://doi.org/10.1177/2F1098611115613320
Ungar, M. (2011). Policing democracy: Overcoming obstacles to citizen security in Latin America. Johns Hopkins University Press.
UNHRC. (2022). Promotion and protection of the human rights and fundamental freedoms of Africans and of people of African descent against excessive use of force and other human rights violations by law enforcement officers through transformative change for racial justice and equality: Report of the United Nations high commissioner for human rights. UN.
UNODC. (2011). Handbook on police accountability, oversight and integrity. UN.
US Department of State. (2022a). Lesotho 2021 human rights report. US Department of State.
US Department of State. (2022b). Mauritius 2021 human rights report. US Department of State.
US Embassy in Malawi. (2022, November 2). United States and UNDP launch new partnership to strengthen the Independent Complaints Commission (ICC) in MW. [Press Release]. Retrieved from https://mw.usembassy.gov/united-states-and-undp-launch-newpartnership-to-strengthen-the-independent-complaints-commission-icc-in-malawi/
Van Der Spuy, E. (2021). Vagaries and challenges confronting police accountability in the south African post-colony as revealed by recent commissions of inquiry. International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, 45(3), 329–343. https://doi.org/10.1080/01924036.2021.1916971
van Sluis, A., & Devroe, E. (2020). Checks and balances in democratic control of public police: A case study of the Dutch national police after the reform. Police Practice and Research, 21(6), 670–686. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2019.1699410
VICPD. (n.d.). Professional standards section. Retrieved from https://vicpd.ca/contact-us/compliments-complaints/professional-standards-section/
Vitoroulis, M., McEllhiney, C., & Perez, L. (2021). Civilian oversight of law enforcement: Report on the state of the field and effective oversight practices. Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, US Department of Justice.
Walker, M. (2020, November 4). How civilian review of law enforcement can improve police-community relations. [Police 1]. Retrieved from https://www.police1.com/chiefs-sheriffs/articles/how-civilian-review-of-law-enforcement-can-improve-police-communityrelations-CPcxRXZkbnixDknZ/
Walker, S. (2001). Police accountability: The role of citizen oversight. Wadsworth/Thomas Learning.
Walker, S., & Archbold, C. A. (2014). The New World of police accountability. Sage Publications.
Walsh, D. P. J., & Conway, V. (2011). Police governance and accountability: Overview of current issues. Crime, Law and Social Change, 55(2–3), 61–86. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-011-9269-6
Wells, W., & Schafer, J. A. (2007). Police skepticism of citizen oversight: Officers’ attitudes toward specific functions, processes, and outcomes. Journal of Crime and Justice, 30(2), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/0735648X.2007.9721233
Wentkowska, A. (2016). Let us be judged by our actions: Oversight mechanisms of policing in comparative outline. Polish Review of International and European Law, 5(2), 45–72. https://doi.org/10.21697/priel.2016.5.2.02
Wiatrowski, M. D., & Goldstone, J. A. (2010). The ballot and the badge: Democratic policing. Journal of Democracy, 21(2), 79–92.
Wilson, S. (2014). Civilian review boards. In J. S. Albanese (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of criminology and criminal justice. Retrieved from. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118517383.wbeccj154
Wilson, S., & Buckler, K. (2010). The debate over police reform: Examining minority support for citizen oversight and resistance by police unions. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 35(4), 184–197. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-010-9079-x
Witkin, N. (2017). The police-community partnership: Civilian oversight as an evaluation tool for community policing. The Scholar: St. Mary’s Law Review on Race and Social Justice, 18(2), 180–228. https://commons.stmarytx.edu/thescholar/vol18/iss2/2
Worden, R. E., Bonner, H. S., & McLean, S. J. (2018). Procedural justice and citizen review of complaints against the police: Structure, outcomes, and complainants’ subjective experiences. Police Quarterly, 21(1), 77–108. https://doi.org/10.1177/2F1098611117739812
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Hope, K.R. (2023). Civilian Oversight for Democratic Policing and Its Challenges: Overcoming Obstacles for Improved Police Accountability and Better Security in Africa and Beyond. In: Corruption, Sustainable Development and Security Challenges in Africa. Advances in African Economic, Social and Political Development. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-32229-7_8
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-32229-7_8
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-32228-0
Online ISBN: 978-3-031-32229-7
eBook Packages: Political Science and International StudiesPolitical Science and International Studies (R0)