Keywords

1 Introduction

Various educators in Higher Education (HE) institutions (e.g., colleges and universities) are teaching or integrating elements of Environmental and Sustainability Education (ESD) in their teaching practices. The influence exerted by governments, civic society, NGOs, businesses, and international organizations shapes engagement with ESD teaching practices of educators in higher education within countries. Country- and region-specific environmental circumstances, as well as global circumstances such as the COVID-19 pandemic, are also driving forces that influence engagement with the ESD practices of HE educators and their institutions.

There is no blanket approach for teaching ESD in higher education, but important lessons can still be learned from individual countries for the benefit of others; best practices can be identified to support the training and development of educators in HE across countries. Our interdisciplinary research group (RDC) in Health, Environment, and Sustainability Education as part of the Association for Teacher Education in Europe (ATEE) conducted a comparative study in three countries: Barbados, Portugal, and the United Kingdom (UK). The selection of the three countries was made based on the existing collaboration between ESD researchers as part of the RDC. New collaborations were established following UNESCO ESD workshops (2020) and this topic germinated due to the observed differences in ESD teaching practices in HE across countries and regions. This chapter will discuss the highlights of this study and the key lessons learned for building ESD practices in HE that will benefit educators, students, and their societies more broadly.

2 Background

2.1 Barbados in the Context of Environmental and Sustainability Education (ESD)

The Small Island Developing State (SIDS) of Barbados has a population of approximately 285,744 and a land area of 430 sq. km (166 sq. mi). The World Bank Group (2022) measure of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) indicates an economic growth of 1.4% in 2021. Over the last 50 years, the government of Barbados has placed great emphasis on the country’s education system, as reflected by a literacy rate above 90% (World Bank Group, 2022).

In an effort to implement the Barbados Sustainable Development Policy, the Ministry of Housing, Lands, and the Environment (2004) highlighted that the education system was to play a major role in the integration of ESD. Barbados’s government and private sector have implemented initiatives to promote and achieve ESD through formal and non-formal education. A major initiative at that time was the Education Sector Enhancement Programme. The core objectives of this program were to further develop the country’s human resources to adapt to a changing global environment and to strengthen the teaching and learning process via the integration of educational technologies (Pirog & Kioko, 2010). Over the years, some primary and secondary schools have engaged in projects related to environmental education and sustainable development. However, these projects tend to be rather sporadic in nature. A more sustained effort is required if more significant gains are to be achieved. The present government is a strong advocate for sustainable development initiatives and recognizes the detrimental impact of climate change on SIDS.

In Barbados, HE is provided by both private and government institutions. Institutions of strong government influence and control include the Barbados Community College (BCC), the Samuel Jackman Prescod Institute of Technology (SJPI), the Barbados Vocational Training Board, the Erdiston Teachers’ Training College (ETTC), and one regional campus of the University of the West Indies (UWI) (Ministry of Education, Technological, and Vocational Training, 2017). At present, UWI plays a leading role in promoting SDG 13 in collaboration with International Association of Universities’ (IAU) Global Cluster on Higher Education and Research for Sustainable Development (HESD). Some of these initiatives are:

  • Master’s of Education in ESD, Global Citizenship, and Peace for teachers and educators

  • Centre for Resource Management and Environmental Studies (CERMES)

  • The Climate Studies Group Mona (CSGM)

  • Institute for Sustainable Development (ISD) (Higher Education for Research for Sustainable Development, 2022)

In Barbados, the Erdiston Teachers’ Training College has implemented an ESD module for professional development in all major teacher training programs offered by the college. The intention is to have teachers, of all subject areas, examine concepts related to ESD and to develop strategies for implementing ESD in schools. This program is designed to build capacity related to ESD. Erdiston Teachers’ Training College is one of the 30 original members of the International Network of Teacher Education Institutions associated with UNESCO whose aim is to address how the education of teachers could be reoriented to address the integration of sustainable development. In effect, this is an attempt to explore how education could play a more meaningful role in the attainment of the sustainable development goals. This organization is over 21 years old.

Climate change, and the threat it poses to lives and livelihoods in SIDS, such as Barbados, has become a major concern. ESD is critical in tackling this threat and that SDGs cannot be achieved unless education plays a major role in developing the appropriate knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed to combat this major issue.

2.2 Portugal in the Context of ESD

Higher education in Portugal is provided by autonomous universities and polytechnic schools. Public universities provide higher education degrees and courses in all professional areas and are geared toward scientific training, while polytechnic education is focused on courses geared toward vocational training or advanced technical training. Professional teaching qualifications are obtained by completing a master’s degree (Decree Law no. 79/2014, 14 May, amended by Declaration of Rectification no. 32/2014, 27th June, as well as Decree Law no. 176/2014, 12th December, and no. 16/2018, 7th March). Master’s degrees (second cycle) should also offer general educational training, specific didactics of the teaching profession, training in cultural, social, and ethical areas, and an introduction to professional practice that culminates with supervised practice.

To fully qualify with teaching status in pre-school education (early childhood education) as well as the first (from first to fourth grades) and second cycles (from fifth to sixth grades) of basic education, candidates first require a degree in basic education and a subsequent master’s degree in education. These courses exist at universities and at polytechnic schools. To gain access to a master’s degree course in education of the third cycle of basic education (from 7th to 9th grades) and secondary education (from 10th to 12th grades)—for example, a master’s in biology and geology teaching in the third cycle of basic education and in secondary education—candidates must have a first degree and have completed between 120 and 180 ECTS following the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System in a subject area or in each of the subject areas covered by the master’s degree. These courses exist at universities. The teaching staff involved in initial teacher education courses in higher education institutions should be duly qualified, hold a PhD, or be deemed a specialist of recognized experience and professional competence.

The key actors in decision-making processes who designed and implemented ESD in Portugal consider that there is a lack of commitment from governmental institutions to implement ESD at the university level and only a few documents are partially linked to sustainable development (Farinha et al., 2018). Nevertheless, they consider that Portuguese universities’ autonomy and their social responsibility led them to develop several initiatives and policies toward ESD.

To investigate whether graduate and postgraduate studies in Portuguese public HE are aligned with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), Aleixo et al. (2020) carried out a content analysis of the designations and objectives of the 2556 undergraduate and master’s degrees courses in 33 Portuguese public higher education institutions. They found that 198 courses directly address at least one SDG; on average, each higher education institution has six courses that explicitly address at least one SDG. Moreover, they note that universities have more courses in SDG areas than polytechnics, more master’s degrees embrace SDGs than undergraduate degrees, and most courses addressing SDGs are from the social sciences and humanities areas and from natural and environmental sciences.

The National Voluntary Report (RNV) on the Implementation of the 2030 Agenda (Ministério dos Negócios Estrangeiros, 2017), presented at the United Nations in 2017, established the national priorities, having defined six strategic SDGs: 4—Quality Education; 5—Gender Equality; 9—Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure; 10—Reducing Inequalities; 13—Climate Action; and 14—Protecting Marine Life. Against this background, the inclusion of teacher educators of various subjects with a master’s degree in early childhood education and teachers of the first, second, and third cycles of basic education and of secondary education is a pertinent intentional sample in the ambit of this global study.

2.3 The UK in the Context of ESD

The UK’s HE sector has experienced the impacts of significant events, including Brexit, which threatens collaborations between European researchers, colleges, and universities, as well as the COVID-19 pandemic that caused severe disruptions, affecting students’ learning and teaching practices. Approximately 2.7 million UK students were studying in colleges and universities in 2019–2020 (HESA, 2021). A diverse group of teachers across disciplines in HE is engaged in ESD teaching with the aim to build graduates’ understanding of and engagement with sustainability and by integrating it into their working lives (Appleton, 2017).

The relevance given to ESD in UK government policies fluctuated over time; the same picture emerges independently for the four integrated nations (Wales, Northern Ireland, England, and Scotland) (UNESCO, 2013; Department for Education [DfE], 2021). Following COP 26 and since the COVID pandemic, there appears to be a strategic turnaround in the UK government’s re-engagement and commitment to climate, environment, and sustainability actions as part of a strategy that includes enhancing the methods of teaching best practices of ESD in higher education and engaging institutions in sustainability practices to reach the climate and sustainability goals set for 2030 (DfE, 2021).

The incorporation of ESD teaching practices in UK HE institutions has been facilitated and supported through the following approaches:

  • HE institutions adopting a holistic, whole-institution approach to environmental sustainability to contribute toward the UN’s SDGs (Appleton, 2017).

  • A government-imposed code of practice in HE for teaching and learning that incorporates ESD; since 2021, college teacher graduates are required to have a strong understanding of sustainability and integrate this in their teaching (DfE, 2021).

  • The Advance HE organization promotes excellence in sustainability education in HE institutions by sharing of knowledge, resources, and contributions toward developing ESD guidance and professional recognition for university teachers (Advance HE, 2021).

  • The Environment Association for Universities and Colleges (EAUC) promotes sustainability in HE institutions by empowering institutions, sharing teaching advice and learning resources, and conducting research (EAUC, 2017).

  • Various NGOs for educators, such as SEEd (Sustainability and Environmental Education) and TEESNet (Teacher Education for Equity and Sustainability Network), share teaching and learning resources and research (UNESCO, 2013; Appleton, 2017).

There are approximately 165 universities and HE institutions in the UK (HESA, 2021). A survey undertaken in universities, colleges, and student unions revealed 73% would favor mandatory action being taken by the UK government to pressure senior management to prioritize the delivery of sustainability (EAUC, 2019). Although environmental and sustainability education is back on the political agenda, the existing complexities in facilitating ESD practice in higher education, in contrast to primary and secondary education, must be recognized. There is no one catch-all approach to teaching ESD in UK HE (Appleton, 2017).

3 Rational and Theoretical Framework

Within the above-mentioned three contexts, this study focuses on identifying the best ESD teaching practices across countries to support the training and development opportunities of educators in teaching ESD within HE institutions. Drawing on work by Cortese and Hattan (2010) and Christie et al. (2015), which both recognize the potential of teaching ESD if based on specific pedagogies and teaching methods and in integrated and holistic way, our study focuses on supporting educators in HE to identify their teaching practices. We understand that every ESD teaching practice is influenced by the specific educational context and the content that establishes learning and educational performance standards. However, practices can also evolve from more bottom-up approaches, such as close collaborations with students. In light of the ESD challenges in recent times, HE institutions need to be at the forefront in equipping future generations by promoting and contributing to sustainable practices in their societies (Christie et al., 2015; Glantz et al., 2008; Wals, 2010).

3.1 Pedagogy for Learning

We view environmental citizenship as a pedagogy that promotes ESD teaching practices that build students’ knowledge and affect students’ behaviors. The understanding is that the teaching of values and practices toward the achievement of sustainability will result in how students will behave in society (Martinho et al., 2010). This can range from solving current environmental problems to achieving sustainability as well as critical, active engagement and civic participation (Hadjichambis et al., 2020). The practices of environmental citizenship are based on student notions of participatory democracy, rights, responsibilities, and entitlements in promoting sustainability (Martinho et al., 2010).

As environmental citizens, students can undertake individual or collective actions in public or private contexts (Hadjichambis et al., 2020). Other pedagogies, such as environmental literacies, have a narrow goal to enhance positive environmental attitudes in students, extending knowledge on what is needed for healthy and responsible relationships with nature (Hadjichambis et al., 2020). Within environmental citizenship, educators in HE are supported by various pedagogical approaches. For example, this includes place-based learning, problem-based learning, civic ecology education, action competence learning, and socio-scientific inquiry-based learning (Hadjichambis et al., 2020). An investigation of the environmental citizenship pedagogical approaches applied by educators, as well as how they affect student learning in HE, comprises the learning design of this study.

4 Methodology

We highlight data from three contexts within an exploratory, cross-country approach for cross-learning and knowledge-sharing opportunities toward the identification of best ESD practices in the training and development of educators in higher education. The study examines learning opportunities for educators in HE, the practices that would increase students’ awareness concerning the environment, the role of sustainability approaches, how to better integrate subjects of environmental and sustainability education in practice as part of the curricula, and the differences and similarities in relation to ESD practices in and between countries. The ATEE Administrative Council encouraged and supported the members of the RDC in their academic work, including this study.

4.1 The Circularity of ESD Transformation

We use our “Circularity of ESD Transformation” model, which draws from the “Three Pillars of Sustainability Model” (Adams, 2006; Scott Cato, 2009; Purvis et al., 2019). The three circles represent the social, economic, and environmental aspects that are connected to sustainability (modeled as “Current” in Fig. 1). In our model, this interconnectedness of sustainability is reflected by a nation’s response to economic, social, and environmental issues. The priority given by countries to their economies and their interaction with society at large following trade-offs and spill-over effects impact the environment and are underlying explanatory factors for ESD practices implemented in HE (Scott Cato, 2009).

Fig. 1
2 illustrations of 3 cyclic concentric arrows in an anticlockwise direction labeled current and transformation. The 3 arrows are labeled economic, social, and environmental. The current illustration starts with the nation. The transformation illustration starts with the education that points to the nation.

The four pillars of the sustainability model (“Current” adapted from Adams, 2006)

Full size image

Moreover, our model adds a fourth pillar, representing education, due to its relevance, as supported by our study (see “Transformation,” Fig. 1). A nation’s education system is influenced by and reflective of economic, social, and environmental matters, thus contributing to the presence or absence of sustainable practices. The circularity of ESD is reflected when a nation uses, and therefore transforms, its ESD to similarly influence and impact its sustainability practices in economic, social, and environmental spheres. This model provided researchers across countries an excellent framework for better understanding the ESD practices implemented by educators in HE and their institutions. Within this structure, educators in HE in specific countries identified their ESD practices and country-specific researchers made the connections with the four pillars of sustainability.

4.2 Participants

Executing this study during the COVID-19 pandemic proved challenging and impacted our research design. We used various channels to recruit participants, such as through convenience sampling, online and social media platforms, teacher organizations, and our networks. Participation in this type of survey-based research proved less motivating for teachers in HE during the COVID-19 pandemic, which is reflected by the small sample. More specifically, educators across HE institutions were requested to participate by country-based researchers that were part of the interdisciplinary research group of the Association for Teacher Education in Europe (ATEE). The country-based researchers, tapping into their established networks, reached out to colleges, universities, and individual educators in Barbados, Portugal, and the UK; the call to participate in our study, however, was open to all educators.

4.3 Study Research Method: Online Questionnaire

We use descriptive analysis as the method to describe the features of the samples. The research group developed one ESD online questionnaire for educators and trainee educators in HE. For the validation of the online questionnaire, the collaboration of experienced Health, Environment, and Sustainability Education RDC researchers of each country was requested to translate and produce a local version of the instrument. The initial questionnaire was written in English and consisted of 14 items. In order to determine whether the questionnaire could be applied in each country or if items required adaptation, a country expert was consulted to give evidence-based or theory-driven suggestions for the national adaptation of the instrument. The first part of the online questionnaire provides information about the aims of the study, the ethics, the method, and the amount of survey completion time and asked for participant-informed consent.

The questionnaire used a five-point-based Likert scale. The types of questions used allowed participants to select a response indicating a time period, varying from “never” to “always;” for example, how often did you teach about the following themes/problems of education for sustainable development in the last 12 months at the school where you worked? Another set of questions asked about the need for development to which the participant could select a response indicating levels of need, varying from “no need” to “high level of need”: for example, for each of the areas listed below, what is the degree to which you need to develop your knowledge/competences regarding education for sustainable development? These questions were complemented by open-ended questions, through which in-depth details were provided.

The questionnaire was accessible on and was uploaded to the online Survey Monkey platform from which the data was collected. Data collection took place over a one-year time frame, to allow for the establishment of networks within and across countries between researchers and educators. Our analysis focuses on identifying the ESD practices across countries that were implemented or that were absent, as well as on connections with the four pillars of sustainability.

5 Findings

The recruitment of teachers in colleges and universities across the disciplines that integrate ESD proved challenging; as a result, a small sample group of teachers were recruited across countries. We recognize that this aspect could impact the overall applicability of the findings. The findings of this study, despite its small sample size, remain relevant as it was carried out by experienced researchers and educators, who also have teacher training experience, with access to unique networks of educators working at the intersection of three fields. We believe these first findings might inspire other researchers to further expand the evidence-based practice of ESD teaching. Describing these findings will continue to support ESD discourses in HE institutions and teachers across nations.

5.1 Barbados Findings

The findings are based on reports from two Barbadian female teachers. Both teachers were aged between 31 and 40 years and reported having acquired formal education by obtaining a post-graduate degree (PhD). The Barbadian context relied on convenience sampling and, as a result, a limited number of teachers in HE responsible for ESD teaching could be recruited as participants. In addition, the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic proved to be a challenging time period to motivate teachers in HE for this study. The areas of the degrees awarded were in Languages and Humanities and Social Studies; the age of students taught ranged from 16 to 20 years.

According to a single teacher, the institution made changes following the COVID-19 pandemic. The following practices were part of the changes: students being exposed to information, were being provided with examples for solutions, and were encouraged to protect the environment. How these practices were facilitated in teaching was not detailed by the teacher. One teacher defined ESD as “maintaining natural resources without harm, while still meeting the developmental needs of society as present.” The key global environmental problems reported by one teacher centered on climate change, pollution, ecological issues, and COVID-19. The key local environmental problems, similarly, were linked to climate change and COVID-19 but also indicated violence as a key local environmental problem. The teacher continued to explain, “It is about the practice of formally sensiti[z]ing persons about the ways in which a country can help to maintain itself and improve people’s quality of living. By extension, the world at large is impacted positively.” Addressing violence in this context as part of ESD teaching contributes to this sensitizing practice.

The frequency of the themes and problems relating to ESD being taught is an interesting indicator, and the following becomes apparent: certain theme clusters and problems related to ESD were reported as being taught seldom, sometimes, often, or always. Themes that centered on mobility were reported by a single teacher as rarely taught. Furthermore, themes that centered on culture and cultural diversity, human rights, business environmental practices, sustainable (energy) consumption, and air and atmosphere were reported to have been taught sometimes during that academic year (2020–2021) by a single teacher. The themes that were reported as often being taught (2020–2021) by a single teacher were reflective of current local and global challenges and centered on human health, conservation of nature and biodiversity, climate change, water, and waste management. Two themes were reported by a single teacher as always being part of teaching during the academic year, namely gender equality and peace/human security.

A single teacher indicated the approachesFootnote 1 that were often used to teach the identified themes and problems in ESD within the last 12 months. These approaches included context-based learning, project-based teaching, lecture-based teaching, online and technology-based teaching, teachable moments, and storytelling-based teaching. Furthermore, other approaches such as action-based learning, debate-based learning, demonstration, cooperative group discussion-based learning, co-creation-based teaching, guided discovery, and peer-based teaching were reported as being used sometimes by a single teacher. A single teacher reported never visiting places of educational interest or using experiential-based teaching approaches in the last 12 months. Neither of the teachers indicated having a need for further development in knowledge and competence in ESD.

5.2 Portugal Findings

The findings are based on reports from a group of 15 teachers, 9 women (n=9) and 6 men (n=6). The majority were aged between 51 and 60 years of age and had obtained a post-graduate study (PhD) in Science Education.

The majority of the teachers reported that their institutions had not changed their practice to get an overview of local and global environmental problems following the COVID-19 pandemic. Nonetheless, teachers reported six key global and local environmental problems that needed to be addressed at the HE institution. Teachers indicated problems on a global level involving climate change, urban solid waste, the COVID-19 pandemic, lack of water, loss of biodiversity, and pollution, followed by a small number of teachers who mentioned the depletion of non-renewable natural resources, decreasing quality of life, global warming, and natural risks. On the local level, the majority of teachers reported the same principal six problems, giving priority to the COVID-19 pandemic and urban solid waste. A smaller number of teachers also mentioned the local problems of the depletion of non-renewable natural resources, decreasing quality of life, global warming and natural risks, and soil degradation.

The frequency of the themes and problems relating to ESD that were being taught in the last 12 months in higher education reveal the themes of conservation of nature and biodiversity, climate change, and waste management were for one teacher “always” and for another “often” part of the teachers’ teaching. The themes and problems that were sometimes taught by most teachers included human rights, human health, business environmental practices, sustainable energy consumption, and mobility. Furthermore, the themes and problems that were seldom or never taught by the majority of teachers include cultural diversity and intercultural understanding, peace and human security, gender equality, conservation of cultural heritage, economical solutions to poverty reduction, sustainable consumption, water risk, and air and atmosphere pollution.

When teaching these ESD-related themes, most teachers reported often or always using the following approaches: context-based teaching, action-based teaching, project-based teaching, debate and dialectic teaching, teachable moments, online and technological-based teaching, and peer education. The majority of teachers reported sometimes using guided discovery and exploratory teaching, and experiential based-teaching. While most teachers also reported never or seldom using approaches such as co-creation-based teaching, cooperative group discussion, storytelling-based teaching outdoor activities or visits to places of educational interests, lecture-based teaching, and demonstration approaches.

The majority of teachers reported no need or a low need to develop knowledge and competence in areas such as environmental education and ESD, eco-schools/green schools, knowledge about the institution’s management and administration, national guidelines of ESD, assessing school policies and practices related to ESD, the development of research-based learning in ESD, and the collection of data and reflection of other teachers on practices of ESD. However, they reported moderate needs regarding interdisciplinary sustainability-related themes or problems and the Municipal Educational Project.

In the same way, most teachers reported not having or having a low degree of need to develop their knowledge and skills in relation to the inclusion of ESD in the subjects that they teach in higher education institutions. More specifically, during teacher internships, there is a lack of teacher training on how to include and explore ESD goals in the curriculum of their specific subjects, as well as on planning, evaluating, monitoring, and communicating school- or class-based ESD. Similarly, most teachers have the required knowledge and skills to explore interests, talents, passions, and natural curiosities of students considering their initial knowledge. This allows teachers to strategize on how to implement experiential learning both in and outside of the classroom, on how to make information and skills relevant to student real-life situations, and on how to teach students to use digital technologies purposefully to create, develop, and share their projects. This would also include how to develop project-based learning designed to address real-world problems and issues. However, the majority of teachers reported a moderate to high need to develop knowledge and competence related to teaching ESD to students with special needs and teaching ESD in a multicultural setting.

5.3 UK Findings

The findings are based on the reports of four UK teachers, of which two were male and two were female. Teachers were teaching in colleges and in universities. Two teachers had obtained a doctoral qualification, one teacher had obtained a master’s degree, and another a bachelor’s degree. The area of the degree awarded included the Sciences, Humanities and Social Studies, and Teacher Education. Two teachers reported being between 41 and 50 years old, one reported being between 31 and 40 years old, and one reported being older than 60 years. The age of students taught ranged from 16 years to 25 years and above 25 years.

One teacher reported the HE institution changed its practices following the COVID-19 pandemic. The practice of increased virtual meetings was indicated as the change. ESD was defined by teachers in three areas, namely (1) SDG-related modules, (2) the health and well-being of students and staff for effective teaching and learning, and (3) holistic education combining mind, body, and feelings in enhancing personal development and knowledge; ESD was also referred to as “holistic teaching.” The key themes and global environmental problems reported by some teachers centered on greenhouse emission, air travel, food waste, food packaging, and water bottles. A single teacher linked key themes and global environmental problems across educational sectors and highlighted a lack of awareness of history, recurring processes, and a need for cross-curricular integration to promote student awareness of the impact of their actions on the environment. The key themes and local environmental problems reported by some teachers equally centered on food packing, re-cycling but not tokenism (which was unfortunately not further elaborated), the impact of travel to and from school, and all aspects of waste.

The frequency of the themes and problems relating to ESD that were being taught in the last 12 months differed between some teachers. For instance, the following themes were reported as often being taught by one, while another reported having seldom, sometimes, or never taught the following themes: cultural diversity and intercultural understanding, human rights, peace and human security, gender equality, human health, business environmental practices, conservation of nature and biodiversity, sustainable consumption, sustainable energy consumption, climate change, waste management, and water. This difference in the frequency with which ESD-related problems and themes were taught was observed between a single teacher in the field of Science and Humanities. It is plausible that the diversity of teachers across the disciplines in HE highlights a stronger focus on themes that are closely linked to their subject specialism. As a result, we are able to develop an understanding of how the education of graduates with regard to ESD is shaped in HE.

To teach these ESD-related themes, a single teacher reported always using context-based teaching, action-based teaching, project-based teaching, and lecture-based teaching approaches. Furthermore, two teachers reported often using demonstration as an approach in teaching. A single teacher reported often having used specific approaches, while a single teacher reported never having used the same approaches in the last 12 months, namely co-creation-based teaching, cooperative group discussion-based teaching, and online and technology-based teaching. In addition, some teachers reported sometimes using guided discovery and exploratory teaching, peer-based teaching, and outdoor activities while visiting places of educational interest, storytelling-based teaching, and utilizing teachable moment approaches seldom were used.

A single teacher indicated a high level of need in developing competence and knowledge in specific areas, while another teacher reported a low level of need in the same areas, namely ESD and environmental education, eco-schools and green schools, ESD in the specific teaching subject, interdisciplinary sustainability-related themes, national guidelines of ESD, municipal educational project, national program and curriculum goals, planning and school/class-based ESD and exploring the interests, talents, passions, and natural curiosities of students.

In addition, a moderate level of need was associated to developing competence and knowledge by a single teacher in the areas of student behavior and group of student management, school management and administration, the assessing of school policies and ESD practices, establishing effective communication, planning and monitoring of ESD, evaluating and monitoring of school/class-based ESD project, teaching ESD to students with special needs, teaching ESD in a multicultural setting, and exploring ESD in specific teaching subject. Similarly, a moderate level of need was indicated with respect to developing research-based ESD teaching and understanding, implementing experiential learning in and outside the classroom, making information and skills relevant for real-life situations, using technology purposefully to share projects, developing project-based learning that addresses real-world problems, collecting data, and reflecting on practices of health education with colleagues.

6 Key Lessons for Building ESD Practices: A Discussion across Three Countries

In this exploratory cross-country study, despite the limitations of the study associated with the type of sample in each country, five key learning lessons for building EDS practices in higher education emerge. The first lesson is that ecocentric and anthropocentric conceptions of the environment and sustainable development that are common among teachers of primary, secondary, and university education in several countries (e.g., Castéra & Clément, 2016; Kopnina, 2020; Nyberg et al., 2020) did not emerge in higher education teachers of the three countries participating in this study. This is very positive for the training of future professionals within the framework of the 2030 Agenda (UNESCO, 2020) and is further supported by the sustainability model that we advocate in this study (Purvis et al., 2019). The holistic view of the environment and sustainable development that emerged from these participants, both in their understanding of these concepts and in the themes they worked on in the subjects that they teach in higher education, shows a simultaneous concern for the environmental, social, and economic dimensions of sustainability as well as their interrelationships; this concern has been advocated as a priority for the formation of empowered environmental citizenship to promote sustainable development (Dada et al., 2017). Evidence of this holistic concept is, for example, the simultaneous work on topics such as cultural diversity and intercultural understanding of human rights within the topics of climate change or waste management that were mentioned by respondents in the three countries as being sometimes or often included by teachers in the subjects they teach in higher education.

The second lesson is that both global and local problems are considered a priority by participants in the three countries; climate change and the COVID-19 pandemic are the major current concerns on a global scale in terms of research (Brumann et al., 2022; Chao et al., 2021; Eilam, 2022; Guidry et al., 2022), public policies (e.g., Lazard & Youngs, 2021; World Health Organization, 2022), and education (Dadaczynski et al., 2020). Urban solid waste is a major global and local environmental problem acknowledged by Portuguese and UK respondent teachers, whereas pollution was a main concern for respondent teachers in Barbados and Portugal. It is worth noting the different local environmental problems in the three countries; violence emerged as one of the priorities for Barbados, soil degradation for Portugal, and greenhouse emission for the UK.

The third lesson is that teachers from Barbados and Portugal often addressed the conservation of nature and biodiversity, climate change, waste management, and sometimes social problems in their classes in the last 12 months, giving a clear priority to environmental problems. However, UK teachers created a greater balance between social and environmental problems. On the one hand, they sometimes taught topics such as cultural diversity and intercultural understanding, human rights, peace and human security, gender equality, and human health. On the other hand, with regard to environmental problems, topics such as business environmental practices, conservation of nature and biodiversity, sustainable consumption, climate change, waste management, and water issues are also taught.

The fourth lesson is that the approaches often used by respondents from the three countries working in higher education contexts with ESD practices in their classes are contextualized and inquiry-based, such as action-oriented and project-based teaching; the use of online and technological-based teaching was also popular. These methodologies, like co-creation-based teaching, have proven to be very effective in ESD (Barreto & Vilaça, 2018, 2019; Vilaça et al., 2019a, 2019b). However, the latter is only rarely or sometimes used in the three countries, so it is necessary to encourage and train teachers in its use in ESD contexts.

The fifth and final lesson is related to higher education teacher professional development in ESD. Most teachers in the three countries showed no need or a moderate need to develop their knowledge and competences in relation to ESD. Moreover, in all countries, High Education teachers only showed a moderate to high need for training to teach ESD to students with special needs and in multicultural settings.

Despite the limitations of the study, our findings have important implications for the mission and objectives of our interdisciplinary research group in Health, Environment, and Sustainability Education as part of the Association for Teacher Education in Europe (ATEE). First, the RDC strives to create learning opportunities for educators in ESD for applied practices that increase students’ awareness concerning health, the environment, and their links to sustainability approaches. Second, it is necessary to encourage further reflection as an RDC on how to better achieve the integration of subjects related to environmental and sustainability education in practice as part of the curricula in HE. Third, it is important to continue to deepen our understanding of differences and similarities in relation to ESD practices in HE locally, in between countries, and globally to influence contextually sensitive policies toward the greater goal of sustainability.