Analysis and Forecasting of Water Resources and Use in the Context of Climate Transition in Selected EU Countries

Stancu, Adrian

doi:10.1007/978-3-031-26277-7_4

Adrian Stancu³

352 Accesses
1 Citations

Abstract

Water is one of the key elements that support life, it is part of the human’s and other species’ cells. Freshwater is essential for the survival of most of the Earth’s living organisms both directly as drinking water and indirectly when producing food. This chapter focuses on studying 5 freshwater indicators, namely the total renewable water resources per capita and the total water withdrawal per capita, on the one hand, and on the other hand, the agricultural water withdrawal, the industrial water withdrawal, and the municipal water withdrawal, as percent of total water withdrawal. There are 19 EU countries under analysis, which were selected according to their fulfilling at least one of the two criteria, namely whether they recorded the lowest level of the average total renewable water resources per capita in contrast to the EU’s average of total renewable water resources per capita, and/or whether they registered a decreasing trend of the total renewable water resources per capita throughout the specific period of time. The period under focus varies from 1961–2019 to 1993–2019 according to data available for each country, and the forecast is established for 2020–2050. The results underline worrying situations for some states both at present and in the near and medium future.

Access provided by Autonomous University of Puebla. Download chapter PDF

A review of the assessment of sustainable water use at continental-to-global scale

Article 11 February 2020

Effectiveness of Water Management in Europe in the 21st Century

Article 14 March 2016

Conventional Water Resources

Keywords

1 Introduction

Water is one of the four major elements of the Earth together with air, soil and rocks, and fire (magma). The Earth’s total amount of water (ice, surface water, underground water, and water vapor in the air) forms the hydrosphere. Even if the human beings cannot imagine the Earth without water, we must be aware that the surface water in a liquid form is almost very rare in our solar system due to the fact that other planets do not offer a surface temperature between 0 °C (32 °F) and 100 °C (212 °F) which ensures the liquid state of the water (McKay & Davis, 2014; Peccerillo, 2021; Vogt, 2007).

Earth’s water resources includes 97.47% salt water and 2.53% freshwater of which 68.7% in glaciers and permeant snow cover, 30.1% is the ground water, 0.86% in ground ice and permafrost, 0.26% in lakes, 0.03% in swamps, 0.04% is the atmospheric water, 0.007% in rivers, and 0.003% is the biological water. Additionally, our planet’s hydrosphere is a closed system but in motion due to the hydrologic cycle, in which no water is either added or removed from the system throughout time (Kundzewicz, 2010; Petersen et al., 2021; Shiklomanov, 1993).

Nowadays, a severe issue is represented by the pollution of surface and ground freshwater which is rooted in various causes, such as: the industrialization, urbanization, population growth, plastic bags, pesticides and fertilizers used in agriculture, domestic sewage, weak water treatment systems, and others (Ali et al., 2022; Jiao, 2021; Kim et al., 2016; Lebreton et al., 2017; Lundqvist et al., 2019; Niculae et al., 2018; Paun et al., 2017).

Since 1972, when the concept of sustainable development was brought into the world public attention at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm, the member states have been focusing on investing in renewable energy sources towards a carbon-neutral economy (Matei, 2013; Panait et al., 2019; Rogers et al., 2012; Sachs, 2015; Voica et al., 2015).

In the European Union [EU], the climate transition or green transition, as a path policy for achieving the goal of climate neutrality by 2050, is stated in the European Green Deal. This document was initiated by the European Commission in December 2019 (European Council, Council of the European Union, 2022a) and the timeline of the main decisions that have been taken is continuously updated and disseminated (European Commission, 2022). On 14 July 2021, the European Commission introduced the “Fit for 55 package” whose goal is to reduce EU emissions by at least 55% by 2030 as a legal obligation (European Council, Council of the European Union, 2022c). The EU supports and finances the climate transition (European Council, Council of the European Union, 2022b). It is expected that private and public investments needed to reach the goals for 2030 amount to around €520 billion per year (European Commission, 2021).

A profusion of studies deal with the analysis and forecasting of water resources and use, each of them highlighting various aspects, as follows: the sustainable utilization of water resources in a particular city (Wang et al., 2021), the forecast of agricultural water resources demand (Yi, 2022), the prediction and analysis of water resource carrying capacity in different cities (Guo et al., 2022; Ming, 2011), the future of water resources systems analysis (Brown et al., 2015), the water security for sustainable development in the agri-food sector in different countries (Frone & Frone, 2015), the short-term water demand forecasting (Stańczyk et al., 2022), the prediction and analysis of water resources demand and consumption in a specific area (Enbeyle et al., 2022; Mumbi et al., 2022; Sharma, 2022; Wu et al., 2021), the tools used for water resources analysis, planning, and management (Bozorg-Haddad, 2021), the analysis of water resources carrying capacity (Xiaojing et al., 2022), the impact of drought on water resources using seasonal rainfall forecasts (Brown et al., 2020), the prediction of ground water level in arid environment (Mirzavand et al., 2014).

2 Analysis and Forecasting of Water Resources and Use

2.1 Research Methodology

The analysis focuses on some of the EU member states’ freshwater resources and use. At the research time (year 2022), there are 27 EU countries, i.e., Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czechia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxemburg, Malta, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, and Sweden (European Union 2022a).

The FAO’s [Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations] AQUASTAT database has been used for gathering data. Generally speaking, it comprises data concerning water starting 1958 until 2019 (FAO, 2022).

The Eurostat (2022a, 2022b, 2022c) database, OECD [Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development] (2022) database and The World Bank (2022) database were not useful due to their limitations, as follows:

For a 20-year period, the complete lack of data for countries such as Denmark, Greece, Italy, Luxembourg, and Austria, and the absence of data in some important years for Belgium, Germany, Ireland, Latvia, Lithuania, and Portugal (in the case of Eurostat database);
The water database comprises data only for two indicators, namely water withdrawals and water treatment, and the time series is limited to 4 years, i.e. 2017–2022 (in OECD database);
Data is not available for the only two indicators, i.e. annual freshwater withdrawals and people using safely managed drinking water services (as regards the World Bank database).

The FAO’s AQUASTAT database comprises 5 groups of variables, namely: geography and population, water resources, water use, irrigation and drainage development, and environment and health. Each group includes a different number of subgroups of variables. The water resources and the water use groups consist of 5 and 4 subgroups of variables, respectively, and each subgroup embeds specific indicators (FAO, 2022). This research angles on 5 water indicators which were selected from the total renewable water resources and water withdrawal by sector subgroups of variables, i.e. (Fig. 1):

A process flow infographic outlines water resource and water use indicators. Water resources have five subgroups of variables, including exploitable water resources and dam capacity, precipitation, and total renewable water resources. Water use subgroups include water resource pressure, wastewater, and others. The indicators derived from total renewable water resources per capita and water withdrawal by sector are agricultural, industrial, municipal, and total water withdrawals as a percentage of total water withdrawal. — **Fig. 1**

Total renewable water resources per capita;
Agricultural water withdrawal as % of total water withdrawal;
Industrial water withdrawal as % of total water withdrawal;
Municipal water withdrawal as % of total water withdrawal;
Total water withdrawal per capita.

According to FAO, renewable water resources are represented by the freshwater resources, namely the average annual flow of the rivers on the surface and the recharge of the aquifers produced by precipitation (Margat et al., 2005).

In order to ensure the comprehensiveness and logic of the research methodology, in the case of each selected EU country, the total renewable water resources per capita and the total water withdrawal per capita are first dealt with. Secondly, the same type of analysis was carried out for the agricultural, industrial, and municipal water withdrawal as percentage of total water withdrawal (the sum of the values of these 3 indicators equals 100%). The time series for each of the five indicators contains data from 1961 (with some fluctuations among countries and type of indicators) until 2019.

The forecasting is made for 2020–2050 period, by using the Forecast Sheet tool of Microsoft Excel 2016. The confidence interval of the predicted values is 95%, as computed by the Forecast Sheet tool. Based on this value, along with the plot of the predicted values, the upper and lower confidence bounds are displayed.

Even if the predicted values are calculated until 2050 (included), in the case of the time series that starts with 1961, 1980 or 1992 year, the maximum value displayed on the horizontal axis is 2049 instead of 2050 due to the fact that the minimum increasing unit is 3 or 4 (chosen automatically by Forecast Sheet tool according to the width of the graph set up by the user) which is used to display all the years between 1961, 1980 or 1992 and 2050. By adding 3 or 4 to 1961, 1980 or 1992, the highest number that should not exceed 2050 (the upper bound of the forecast) is 2049. This particular issue does not apply to the series that starts with 1993 for the reason that 2050 value is obtained by adding three 19 times to 1993.

Taking into account that the five indicators considered for all 27 EU member states will exceed the upper limit of the number of pages of this chapter, a criteria was required for choosing the countries that will be analyzed.

The first criterion, that was tested to be used for selecting the EU countries, was the country’s level of the average total renewable water resources per capita as compared to the EU’s average of total renewable water resources per capita. Each country’s average total renewable water resources per capita was computed based on their both annual total renewable water resources per capita and available data (Fig. 2):

A bar graph indicates the average total renewable resources per capita for the 27 European Union member states. Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, and other countries are among them. The graph's vertical line represents the average value, 8,116,48. Croatia has the highest value at 24,000.00, followed by Finland at 21,000.00. Malta has the lowest score. The numbers are approximations. — **Fig. 2**

Starting 1961 until 2019 for Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Luxemburg, Malta, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Spain, and Sweden;
Starting 1992 until 2019 for Croatia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Slovenia;
Starting 1993 until 2019 for Czechia and Slovakia.

The EU’s average total renewable water resources per capita (8,166.48 m³/inhabit/year, plotted as red line in Fig. 2) was calculated using all 27 countries’ average total renewable water resources per capita. Thus, only 11 out of 27 EU member states recorded a level higher than the EU’s average, namely: Austria, Croatia, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Ireland, Latvia, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Sweden. Conversely, there are other 11 countries which registered the lowest level in contrast to the EU’s average, as follows: Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czechia, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Malta, Poland, and Spain.

The second criterion assessed was the EU country’s evolution trend of total renewable water resources per capita between 1961 and 2019 (Fig. 3). For each country, from top to bottom, the first bar displays the total renewable water resources per capita in 1961 and the last bar plots the total renewable water resources per capita in 2019. There are similar exceptions as previously mentioned, in particular, available data starts with 1992 in the case of Croatia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Slovenia, and with 1993 for Czechia and Slovakia.

A horizontal trend graph denotes the evolution trend of the total renewable resources of the 27 E U member states. The total renewable water resources per capita follow an increasing trend for Croatia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania. The total renewable water resources per capita decreases throughout the years for Austria, Sweden, Netherlands, Spain, Ireland and more. — **Fig. 3**

Three evolution trends can be highlighted. The first is the increasing trend which is a positive one. It denotes a continuous rise of the total renewable water resources per capita starting with the first year of data reported until 2019, and this is the case of Croatia, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. The second trend is also positive because even if the evolution recorded a decline in the middle of the analyzed period, in the last years the growths created an increasing trend. It applies to Bulgaria, Greece, Hungary, Poland, Portugal, and Romania. The third is a decreasing trend, being a negative one, due to the fact that the total renewable water resources per capita diminished constantly throughout the 1961–2019 period, and it is specific to Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Czechia, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, and Sweden.

Therefore, the countries that should benefit from an in-depth analysis are those that fulfill at least one of the two criteria, i.e., they recorded the lowest level of the average total renewable water resources per capita in contrast to the EU’s average of total renewable water resources per capita, and/or they registered a decreasing trend of the total renewable water resources per capita throughout their specific period of time. Thus, the following 19 countries in alphabetical order will be under focus: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czechia, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, and Sweden.

2.2 Austria

Concerning the evolution of total renewable water resources per capita between 1961 and 2019 (blue line in Fig. 4a), the analysis underlines that its level recorded a continuous decrease between two time intervals, namely: 1961–1977, and 1994–2019. The highest declines occurred in 2018 versus 2017 (−0.82%), 2019 against 2018 (−0.80%), 2017 in contrast to 2016 (−0.78%), 1994 as opposed to 1993 (−0.77%), and 1993 as compared to 1992 (−0.74%). Between 1978 and 1983, a rise period was registered with the highest increases in 1980 against 1979 (+0.12%), 1979 compared to 1978 (+0.11), 1981 as opposed to 1980 (+0.10%), 1982 versus 1981 (+0.06%), and 1978 in contrast to 1977 (+0.05%) (Fig. 4a).

Two line graphs. 1, the graph denotes the available total renewable water resources from 1961 to 2021 and forecasting total renewable resources from 2017 through 2049. The line starts from 10,700.00 in 1961 and gradually decreases to 6,600,00 in 2049. 2, the graph total water withdrawal from 1980 through 2016 and forecast of water withdrawal from 2019 to 2049, the line starts at 424,00 in 1980, increases to 490,000 in 1989 and follows a decrease in trend and reaches 315,00 in 2049. The values are approximate. — **Fig. 4**

The forecasting of the total renewable water resources per capita, between 2020 and 2050, highlights the same decreasing trend (in Fig. 4a, the red line represents the predicted evolution). Thus, knowing that the level of total renewable water resources per capita in 2019 recorded 8,676.61 m³/inhabit/year, it is predicted to reach 7,890.12 m³/inhabit/year by 2030, 7,178.04 m³/inhabit/year by 2040, and 6,465.97 m³/inhabit/year by 2050. The highest declines are estimated in 2050 against 2049 (−1.08%), 2049 as compared to 2048 (−1.07%), and 2048 versus 2047 (−1.06%). The lowest reductions are projected in 2020 as opposed to 2019 (−0.71%), 2021 in contrast to 2020 (−0.82%), and 2022 against 2021 (−0.83%).

As regards the total water withdrawal per capita between 1980 and 2019, the evolution is slightly different from the total renewable water resources per capita. Firstly, the time series has 1980 as a staring year, and, secondly, the periods with growths (1980–1990, 1996–1999, and 2009–2010) alternate with those with decreases (1991–1995, 2000–2008, and 2011–2019). The highest rise occurred in 1997 versus 1996 (+2.55%), 1996 against 1995 (+2.47%), 1981 in contrast to 1980 (+1.49%), 1982 as opposed to 1981 (+1.43%), and 1983 as compared to 1982 (+1.37%). The highest declines recorded in 1993 contrary to 1992 (−2.71%), 1994 against 1993 (−2.67%), 1992 as opposed to 1991 (−2.64%), 1995 versus 1994 (−2.55%), and 1991 in contrast to 1990 (−2.49%). Consequently, the decreasing trend of the total water withdrawal per capita is caused by the decrease ratio, which is higher as compared to the increase ratio (Fig. 4b).

The predicted evolution is characterized by the same upswing (2022–2025, 2035–2038, and 2048–2049) and downswing (2020–2021, 2026–2034, and 2039–2047) variation. The highest rises are forecasted in 2049 (+2.91%), 2036 (+2.64%), 2023 (+2.41%), 2048 (+2.07%), and 2035 (+1.87) in contrast to previous years. The highest falls are likely in 2046 (−3.27%), 2033 (−2.97%), 2045 (−2.82%), 2047 (−2.81%), and 2020 (−2.73%) against previous years (Fig. 4b).

The weight of the total water withdrawal per capita in the total renewable water resources per capita between1980 and 2019 had a low level and it varied with a peak of 4.9% in 1990 and a base of 4.3% in 1980.

The evolution of the Austria’s agricultural, industrial, and municipal water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal, between 1980 and 2019, highlights a similar flow of the agricultural and municipal water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal until 2008 concerning both growth periods (1981–1985 and 1991–1995) and fall periods (1986–1990 and 1996–2008, except 2000–2002 for the agriculture water withdrawal). The industrial water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal recorded an opposite evolution against the agricultural and municipal water withdrawal, whereas its level increased in 1986–1990, 1996–1999, and 2003–2008, it dropped in the other periods. Between 2010 and 2019, the weight of the agricultural, industrial, and municipal water withdrawal in the total water withdrawal levelled off (Fig. 5).

From 1980 to 2049, three line graphs show the evolution and forecasting of agricultural, industrial, and municipal water withdrawal in Austria. The graphs depict the evolution of water withdrawal from 1980 to 2019, as well as water resource forecasting from 2019 to 2049. 1. The line rises from 2,50 to 5,50 in 1983 before declining. 2. The line falls from 80.90 to 75.00 in 1985, then rises to 79.10 in 1922 before dropping to 77.00 in 2010 and remaining stable since. 3. A monotonic line that rises and falls steadily after 2019. The values are estimates. — **Fig. 5**

The highest spikes for the agriculture water withdrawal were in 1981 (+22.7%), 1982 (+17.99%), 1983 (+14.83%), 1984 (+12.57%), and 1985 (+10.87%), for the industrial water withdrawal in 1986 (+1.34%), 1987 (+1.29%), 1988 (+1.24%), 1989 (+1.2%), and 1990 (+1.16%), and for the municipal water withdrawal in 2009 (+7.53%), 2010 (+6.79%), 1981 (+3.92%), 1982 (+3.67%), and 1983 (+3.44%) as compared to previous years. The agriculture water withdrawal tailed off in 1990 (−17.66%), 1989 (−15.32%), 1988 (−13.57%), 1987 (−12.21%), and 1986 (−11.13%), the industrial water withdrawal in 1981 (−1.57%), in 1982 and 2009 (−1.55%), 1983 (−1.53%), in 2010 (−1.52%), and 1984 (−1.51%), and the municipal water withdrawal in 1996 (−3.1%), 1997 (−3.03%), 1986 (−1.91%), 1987 (−1.9%), and 1988 (−1.88%) against previous years (Fig. 5).

The forecast of each of the three indicators is significantly different. The predicted values of the weight of the agricultural and municipal water withdrawal in the total water withdrawal, for the 2020–2050 period, are opposite. Thus, the former are expected to follow a decreasing trend (−1.11% in 2030, −1.24% in 2040, and −1.42% in 2050), whereas the latter are projected to record an increasing trend (+0.27% in 2030, +0.26% in 2040, and +0.25% in 2050) (Fig. 5a, c). In the case of the weight of the industrial water withdrawal in the total water withdrawal, the foreseen trend is to be relatively constant compared to the value from 2010 to 2019 period (77.17%), i.e., 77.15% in 2030, 77.14% in 2040, and 77.12% in 2050 (Fig. 5b).

2.3 Belgium

Between 1961 and 2019, Belgium’s total renewable water resources per capita have fallen continuously. The highest declines were in 2008 and 2009 (−0.75%), 2010 (−0.72%), 1962 (−0.69%), 1963 (−0.67%), and 2006 and 2011 (−0.68%) as opposed to previous years. Conversely, the lowest declines were in 1983 and 1984 (−0.06%), 1982 (−0.08%), 1981 and 1985 (−0.09%), 1986 and 1987 (−0.13%), and 1980 (−0.15%) as compared to previous years. Given the level of total renewable water resources per capita in 2019 (1,585.88 m³/inhabit/year), the forecast computed until 2050 was estimated to lower levels, such as 1,492.45 m³/inhabit/year in 2030, 1,407.51 m³/inhabit/year in 2040, and 1,322.58 m³/inhabit/year in 2050. The highest declines are estimated for the end of forecast period, such as −0.64% in 2050, −0.63% in 2047–2049, and −0.62% in 2045–2046 against previous years (Fig. 6a).

Two line graphs of total renewable water resources and total water withdrawal in Belgium. The graph marks the evolution of water resources and water withdrawal from 1961 through 2017 and the forecasting of both from 20121 through 2049. The lines in both the graphs follow a decrease in trend with some fluctuations. — **Fig. 6**

In the case of the total water withdrawal per capita between 1980 and 2019, there are only two years in which the level increased, i.e., 2017 (+5.88%) and 2016 (+2.66%) as compared to previous years. The highest diminishes were in 2015 (−7.92%), 2013 (−7.18%), 2012 (−6.91%), 2011 (−6.57%), and 2010 (−6.28%). The predicted values for 2020–2050 period highlight the decreasing trend that was recorded between 1980 and 2019. Starting with 2043 year, the level of the total water withdrawal per capita is below zero, which is unlikely to be recorded. Therefore, it is obviously that an average fall of 5% per year is realistic and, however, in 2030 the forecast level will be 170.15 m³/inhabit/year as compared to 369.46 m³/inhabit/year in 2019 (Fig. 6b).

The weight of the total water withdrawal per capita in the total renewable water resources per capita between1980 and 2019 recorded a high level but it declined constantly and it halved from 49.35% in 1980 to 23.3% in 2018 and 2019, except the 2016 and 2017 year when it registered a slow growth in contrast to previous years.

The agricultural and municipal water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal, between 1980 and 2019, recorded approximately the same trend in which the tails off (1981–1995 and 2016–2017) alternate with rises (1996–1997, 2001–2003, 2005–2007, 2009–2015, and 2018). On the contrary, the industrial water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal registered boosts in 1980–1995, 1998–2000, and 2018, and diminutions in the other periods (Fig. 7).

Three line graphs denote the evolution and forecasting of agricultural, industrial and municipal withdrawal in Belgium, the evolution is marked from 1980 to 2019 and the forecasting marked from 2022 to 2050. 1, the line in the graph that represents agricultural water withdrawal falls from 4.00 to 0.00 in 1994, slightly increases to 1.20 in 2019 and steeps down thereafter. 2, the line rises to 91.00 from 84.00 between 1980 and 1992, decreases to 80.00 between 1995 and 2019, again rises to 81.20 and steeps down. 3, the monotonic line follows an increase in trend starts at 11,00 in 1980 and ends at 24,00 in 2050. The values are approximate. — **Fig. 7**

The highest increases for the agriculture water withdrawal were in 1998 (+41.57%), 1999 (+29.76%), 2000 (+23.25%), 2018 (+22.4%), and 2015 (+21.46%), for the industrial water withdrawal in 2018 (+3.02%), 2016 (+0.76%), 1993–1995 (+0.48%), 1990–1992 (+0.47%), and 1987–1989 (+0.46%), and for the municipal water withdrawal in 1996 (+14.02%), 1997 (+13.19%), 2015 (+10.66%), 2013 (+8.26%), and 2012 (+7.67%) contrary to previous years. The highest falls for the agriculture water withdrawal were in 1995 (−64.81%), 1994 (−39.03%), 1993 (−27.82%), 1992 (−21.56%), and 1991 (−17.55%), for the industrial water withdrawal in 2017 (−2.44%), 2015 (−2.41%), 2013 (−1.55%), 1997 (−1.51%), and 2014 (−1.31%), and for the municipal water withdrawal in 2017 (−6.1%), 2000 (−4.67%), 1999 (−4.1%), 1998 (−4.16%), and 2016 (−3.16%) as opposed to previous years (Fig. 7).

The weight values of the agricultural and industrial water withdrawal in the total water withdrawal expected for 2020–2050 will follow the same decreasing trend. For the weight of the agricultural water withdrawal in the total water withdrawal, the predicted values are viable until 2030 (0.62%) because beyond 2040 it will reach negative values, which is less probable to happen (Fig. 7a). In the case of weight of the industrial water withdrawal in the total water withdrawal, the estimations are 79.89% in 2030, 78.52% in 2040, and 77.15% in 2050 (Fig. 7b). As regards the weight of the municipal water withdrawal in the total water withdrawal, the predicted values describe an increasing trend, i.e. 19.38% in 2030, 21.24% in 2040, and 23.1% in 2050 (Fig. 7c).

2.4 Bulgaria

The Bulgaria’s total renewable water resources per capita recorded declines between 1961 and 1985 and rises between 1986 and 2019. The highest falls were in 1962 (−0.86%), 1963 (−0.85%), 1964 (−0.82%), 1965 (−0.79%), and 1966 (−0.75%), and the highest boosts were in 1994 (+1.19%), 1993 (+1.17%), 1995 (+1.14%), 1996 (+1.05%), and 1992 (+1.02%) against previous years. Taking into account that the level of total renewable water resources per capita recorded in 2019 was 3,042.81 m³/inhabit/year and the continuous increasing trend since 1986, the calculated forecast follows this trend and the estimated values are 3,287.45 m³/inhabit/year (2030), 3,509.91 m³/inhabit/year (2040), and 3,732.37 m³/inhabit/year (2050) (Fig. 8a).

Two line graphs of Bulgaria's total water resources and water withdrawal per capita. The graph measures the evolution between 1961 and 2019 and the forecasting between 2018 and 2049. 1, the graph denotes the line falls from 2,700,00 to 2,300,00 between 1961 and 1989, again rises to 3,000,00 in 2017, from 2025 to 2049 the line follows an increase in trend. 2, the line in the graph falls from 1,600,00 in 1980 and ends at 100,00 in 2050. The values are approximate. — **Fig. 8**

Speaking of the total water withdrawal per capita between 1980 and 2019, its evolution is opposed to the total renewable water resources per capita. There are only 8 years in which its level has grown and the highest expands were of +13.88% in 2002, +7.81% in 2011, +5.39% in 2015, +5.16% in 2003, and +3.6% in 2008 as compared to previous yeasts. Conversely, the highest diminishes were in 1990 (−35.9%), 2012 (−9.95%), 2001 (−4.08%), 1989 (−3.82%), and 1988 (−3.81%). The forecast of the total water withdrawal per capita shows a decline trend with values which start from 774.56 m³/inhabit/year in 2019 to 541.76 m³/inhabit/year in 2030, 330.12 m³/inhabit/year in 2040, and 118.48 m³/inhabit/year in 2050 (Fig. 8b).

The weight of the total water withdrawal per capita in the total renewable water resources per capita, between 1980 and 2019, declined constantly between1980 and 2019, with few exceptions in 2002–2003, 2008, and 2015–2016. The weight has fallen more than a half in 2019 to 25.46% from 1980 where it recorded 66.57%.

The agricultural and industrial water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal recorded the same evolution only in the first half of the period, i.e., between 1991 and 2000, given that data available for industrial water withdrawal starts with 1990 in contrast to agricultural and municipal water withdrawal, which registered data from 1988. As far back as 2003, the industrial and municipal water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal registered the same flow concerning the years in which the level has risen (2004–2007, 2009, 2013, and 2017) or has decreased (2003, 2008, 2010, and 2015–2016) (Fig. 9).

Three line graphs of agricultural, industrial and municipal water withdrawal in Bulgaria from 1988 to 2050. The evolution is marked between 1988 and 2018, the forecasting is marked between 2021 and 2050. 1, the line reaches the peak in 1991 and declines thereafter. 2, the line follows a decrease and increase in trend, falls from 64,00 to 61,00 in 1999 and then increases. 3, the line increases from 4.00 to 19.00 between 1988 and 2000, decreases and fluctuates between 2000 and 2018, increases thereafter. The values are approximate. — **Fig. 9**

The highest increases for the agriculture water withdrawal were in 2003 (+41.52%), 2008 (+40.24%), 1990 (+32.23%), 2019 (+10.28%), and 2015 (+8.93%), for the industrial water withdrawal in 2002 (+9.06%), 2001 (+8.61%), 2014 (+3.39%), 2004 (+2.78%), and 2007 (+2.67%), and for the municipal water withdrawal in 1990 (+78.11%), 1989 (+20.67%), 1991 (+14.09%), 1992 (+12.85%), and 1993 (+11.86%) as opposed to previous years. The highest diminishes for the agriculture water withdrawal were in 2002 (−23.97%), 2001 (−23.23%), 2007 (−17%), 2004 (−14.62%), and 2014 (−10.42%), for the industrial water withdrawal in 2008 (−5.82%), 2003 (−5.28%), 2012 (−3.19%), 2019 (−2.03%), and 2016 (−1.38%), and for the municipal water withdrawal in 2002 (−13.17%), 2011 (−8.08%), 2003 (−5.28%), 2014 (−4.22%), and 2001 (−4.01%) against previous years (Fig. 9).

The predicted values of the agricultural water withdrawal in the total water withdrawal for 2020–2050 track the general decreasing trend until 2019, namely, 12.53% in 2030, 10.76% in 2040, and 9% in 2050 (Fig. 9a). However, the level of the industrial and municipal water withdrawal in the total water withdrawal is forecasted to rise, for instance 72.66% in 2030, 75.59% in 2040, and 78.51% in 2050 for the industrial water withdrawal (Fig. 9b), and 19.18% in 2030, 22.08% in 2040, and 24.97% in 2050 as regards the municipal water withdrawal (Fig. 9c).

2.5 Cyprus

The total renewable water resources per capita registered a continuous fall between 1961 and 2019, except the 2015 year when it has risen with 30.18% against 2014. The highest diminishes were in 1996 (−26.38%), 1993 (−2.21%), 1994 (−2.19%), 1992 (−2.18%), and 1991 (−2.11%) as opposed to previous years. The predicted values of the total renewable water resources per capita are lower than the level from 2019 (650.77 m³/inhabit/year), for instance 465.9 m³/inhabit/year (2030), 332.33 m³/inhabit/year (2040), and 198.77 m³/inhabit/year (2050) (Fig. 10a).

Two line graphs of evolution and forecast of total renewable water resources per capita in Cyprus, and b. a, the line falls from 1,310,00 to 100,00 throughout the years, a hike to 1,200,00 happens in 1993. b, the line follows an increase and decrease in trend, reaches the peak values of 290,000 in 1987, 260,000 in 2002 and 270,000 in 2017 and decreases thereafter. The values are approximate. — **Fig. 10**

As for the total water withdrawal per capita between 1975 and 2019, the increasing periods (1975–1990, 2002–2004, 2009–2012, and 2014–2016) alternates with the decline periods (1991–2001, 2005–2008, 2013, and 2017–2019). The highest expands were in 2012 (+13.23%), 2009 (+11.08%), 2002 (+9.76%), 2004 (+9.51%), and 2003 (+9.41%). In opposed, the highest declines were in 2008 (−26.08%), 2005 (−17.76%), 2017 (−5.88%), 2018 (−4.48%), and 2006 (−4.44%). The predicted level for the total water withdrawal per capita follows a drop trend. Since the level from 2019 was 231.11 m³/inhabit/year, it is expected to reach 216.54 m³/inhabit/year in 2030, 203.29 m³/inhabit/year in 2040, and 190.05 m³/inhabit/year in 2050 (Fig. 10b).

The weight of the total water withdrawal per capita in the total renewable water resources per capita, between 1975 and 2019, recorded significant variations of growth periods (1975–1990, 1996, 2002–2004, and 2009–2016) and diminish periods (1991–1995, 1997–2001, 2005–2008, and 2017–2019). The lowest value of 19.87% was reported in 1976 and the highest value of 40.13% was recorded in 2016.

The agricultural and municipal water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal recorded opposed evolution between 1975 and 2019, that is when the level of agricultural water withdrawal decreased (1976–1990, 2001, 2005–2007, 2010, 2012–2014, and 2017–2019) the level of the municipal water withdrawal increased and vice versa. In the case of the industrial water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal, data is available starting with 1986 and its evolution is similar with the agricultural and municipal water withdrawal only for few periods of time (1997–1990, 2005–2007, and 2017–2019 with municipal, 1991–1993 and 2012–2014 with agricultural) (Fig. 11).

Three line graphs of agricultural, industrial and municipal water withdrawal percentage in Cyprus. The evolution of water withdrawal is between 1975 and 2017 and the forecasting data is between 2019 and 2050. 1, the line that represents agricultural water withdrawal decreases from 84,00 and decreases to 46,00 in 2050. 2, the line follows an increases to trend to 4,10 in 2007, steeps down to 1,00 in 2013 and increases thereafter. 3, the line follows and increase in trend with ups and downs. The values are approximate. — **Fig. 11**

The highest boosts for the agriculture water withdrawal were in 2009 (+12.64%), 2015 (+4.77%), 2002 (+3.42%), 2008 (+3.27%), and 2004 (+1.27%), for the industrial water withdrawal in 2017 (+347.9%), 1987 (+95.06%), 2015 (+89.12%), 1988 (+46.38%), and 1989 (+30.19%), and for the municipal water withdrawal in 2012 (+30.37%), 2005 (+21.98%), 2010 (+21.36%), 2006 (+12.66%), and 2007 (+10.86%) in contrast to previous years. The highest decreases for the agriculture water withdrawal were in 2012 (−9.08%), 2005 (−6.44%), 2007 (−4.8%), 2006 and 2010 (−4.73%), and 2016 (−3.66%), for the industrial water withdrawal in 2016 (−37.38%), 2009 (−24%), 2014 (−23.47%), 2012 (−23.42%), and 2010 (−19.08%), and for the municipal water withdrawal in 2009 (−27.56%), 2002 (−10.62%), 2008 (−9.14%), 2015 (−5.44%), and 2004 (−4.72%) as compared to previous years (Fig. 11).

The forecasted values of the agricultural water withdrawal in the total water withdrawal for 2020–2050 trail the overall decline trend until 2019, i.e., 55.74% in 2030, 51.92% in 2040, and 48.11% in 2050 (Fig. 11a). Conversely, the values of industrial and municipal water withdrawal in the total water withdrawal are forecasted to expand, e.g., 6.92% in 2030, 7.63% in 2040, and 8.33% in 2050 for the industrial water withdrawal (Fig. 11b), and 43.87% in 2030, 47.33% in 2040, and 50.78% in 2050 concerning the municipal water withdrawal (Fig. 11c).

2.6 Czechia

In the case of Czechia, data is available beginning with 1993, when the Czechoslovakia has split into Czech Republic (Czechia) and Slovakia (European Union 2022b). The total renewable water resources per capita recorded a lower decrease in 1994, followed by an increase period (1995–2003) and a reduction period (2004–2019). The highest boosts were of + 0.18% (2001 and 2002), +0.17% (2000), + 0.16% (1999), + 0.15% (1998), and +0.12% (1997). The highest drops were in 2008 (−0.65%), 2009 (−0.6%), 2007 (−0.57%), 2010 (−0.46%), and 2006 (−0.39%) against previous years. The forecast values are tracking the decrease trend until 2019 (1,230.21 m³/inhabit/year), namely 1,204.75 m³/inhabit/year (2030), 1,181.61 m³/inhabit/year (2040), and 1,158.46 m³/inhabit/year (2050) (Fig. 12a).

Two line graphs denote the evolution and forecasting of total renewable water resources and water withdrawal in Czechia, a and b. a, the line increases to 1,285,00 from 1,250,00 in 2002 and falls thereafter. b, the graph falls from 290,000 in 1993 and follows a decrease in trend. The values are approximate. — **Fig. 12**

Concerning the total water withdrawal per capita between 1993 and 2019, its level recorded a continuous shrink with only 3 peaks in 2003 (+13.38%), 2012 (+4.04), and 2016 (+2.33%). The highest diminishes were in 2002 (−15.52%), 2013 (−10.42%), 2019 (−5.49%), 1997 (−4.67%), and 1996 (−4.49%) as opposed to previous years. The predicted values for 2020–2050 period are lower than the level from 2019 (140.89 m³/inhabit/year), i.e., 117.54 m³/inhabit/year in 2030, 93.84 m³/inhabit/year in 2040, and 70.15 m³/inhabit/year in 2050 (Fig. 12b).

The weight of the total water withdrawal per capita in the total renewable water resources per capita, between 1993 and 2019, shows a decrease trend except 2003, 2012 and 2016 when the level increased as compared to previous years. The highest weight was registered in 1993 and the lowest value in 2019 that is 22.79 and 11.45%, respectively.

The agricultural and municipal water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal recorded similar evolution only for the first half of the 1993–2019 period (until 2003). Starting with 2004, the agricultural and industrial water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal registered an equivalent evolution until 2019, excluding 2007, 2009, 2012, 2014–2015, and 2018 (Fig. 13).

Three line graphs of agricultural, industrial and municipal water withdrawal percentage in Czechia. The evolution of water withdrawal is between 1993 and 2017 and the forecasting data is between 2017 and 2050. 1, the line that represents agricultural water withdrawal decreases from 1,00 and increases to 6,00 in 2050. 2, the line follows an increases in trend, goes the peak value of 71,00 in 2000 and decreases thereafter. 3, the line follows and increase in trend with ups and downs, two peak values are 43,99 and 42,99 in 2002 and 2020, respectively. The values are approximate. — **Fig. 13**

The highest rises for the agriculture water withdrawal were in 2002 (+84.79%), 2009 (+24.24%), 1994 (+23.24%), 1995 (+20.61%), and 2015 (+15.22%), for the industrial water withdrawal in 2002 (+16.01%), 2013 (+8.39%), 2016 (+2.32%), 2008 (+1.29%), and 1997 (+1.05%), and for the municipal water withdrawal in 2002 (+15.1%), 2018 (+8.73%), 2013 (+8.3%), 2019 (+4.12%), and 1995 (+2.66%) against previous years. The highest cuts for the agriculture water withdrawal were in 1997 (−26.3%), 1996 (−19.29%), 2001 (−15.12%), 2016 (−14.5%), and 2000 (−9.03%), for the industrial water withdrawal in 2003 (−13.65%), 2012 (−6.69%), 2018 (−5.67%), 2015 (−3.4%), and 2019 (−2.96%), and for the municipal water withdrawal in 2003 (−14.36%), 2012 (−4.16%), 2016 (−3.6%), 2014 (−2.63%), and 2007 (−1.88%) as opposed to previous years (Fig. 13).

The estimated level of the agricultural water withdrawal in the total water withdrawal for 2020–2050 follows the increase trend with values of 3.99% in 2030, 4.99% in 2040, and 5.99% in 2050 (Fig. 13a). Oppositely, the level of the industrial water withdrawal in the total water withdrawal is predicted to fall, namely, 57.15% in 2030, 55.74% in 2040, and 54.34% in 2050 (Fig. 13b). In the case of the industrial water withdrawal, its level is predicted to grow between 2020 and 2030 (up to 57.15%) and to decrease in 2040 (55.74%) and 2050 (54.34%) (Fig. 13c).

2.7 Denmark

The total renewable water resources per capita recorded a decrease trend between 1961 and 2019, except the 1983–1986 period where it has risen (+0.07% in 1984 and 1985, and 0.04% in 1983 and 1986). The highest falls were in 1964 and 1965 (−0.79%), 1966 (−0.77%), 1963 (−0.76%), 1967 (−0.75%), and 1968 (−0.71%) as opposed to previous years. The estimate values for 2020–2050 describe a decease trend with an average decline rate of 0.36% per year. Thus, starting with the level recorded in 2019 of 1,039.52 m³/inhabit/year, the expected levels are 1,000.19 m³/inhabit/year (2030), 964.43 m³/inhabit/year (2040), and 928.68 m³/inhabit/year (2050) (Fig. 14a).

Two line graphs of evolution of total renewable water resources and withdrawal resources in Denmark from 1970 and 2050, a and b. a, the line starts at 1,300,00 and decreases to 900,00 between 1961 and 2050. b, the line increases from 150,00 to 340,00 in 1980 and decreases thereafter. The evolution is marked between 1970 and 2016 and the forecasting year is between 2020 and 2050. The values are approximate. — **Fig. 14**

In respect to the total water withdrawal per capita between 1970 and 2019, its evolution is characterized by the fluctuation of growth periods (1971–975, 1981–1985, 1989–1990, 1996, 2004, 2006, 2008, 2010–2011, 2013, and 2016–2018) with decline periods (1976–1980, 1986–1988, 1991–1995, 1997–2003, 2005, 2007, 2009, 2012, 2014–2015, and 2019). Increases such as +22.31% (2018), +20.21% (2008), +15.38% (2013), +12.77% (1971), and +11.23% (1972) were the highest and diminished equal to −18.42% (2007), −16.4% (2019), −13.31% (1988), −11.71% (1987), and −10.48% (1986) were the highest. The prognosis for 2020–2050 period highlights a fall trend with values lower than the level from 2019 (159.8 m³/inhabit/year), for example, 131.33 m³/inhabit/year in 2030, 105.45 m³/inhabit/year in 2040, and 79.58 m³/inhabit/year in 2050 (Fig. 14b).

Between 1970 and 2019, the weight of the total water withdrawal per capita in the total renewable water resources per capita recorded a zigzag evolution due to the trend of the total water withdrawal per capita, such as 12% (1970), 28.42% (1985), 9.51% (2007—the lowest value), and 15.37% (2019).

There are partial similarities in different combinations of the evolution among the agricultural, industrial and municipal water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal. Thus, between 1976 and 1980, all three indicators have maintained their level from 1975. Furthermore, between 1981 and 2002, the agricultural and industrial water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal recorded the same evolution, and the municipal water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal registered a converse movement. Beginning with 2003 and until 2015, the industrial and municipal water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal registered approximatively the same trend (Fig. 15).

Three line graphs of agricultural, industrial and municipal water withdrawal percentage in Denmark. The evolution of water withdrawal is between 1970 and 2019 and the forecasting data is between 2019 and 2050. 1, the line that represents agricultural water withdrawal increases from 22,00 to 46,00 in 2988, again decreases between 1986 and 2012, again increases to 60,00 in 2018. 2, the line follows an increase and decrease in trend, two peak values are 26,00 and 17,00 in 1986 and 2010, respectively. 3, the line decreases from 61.00 in 1970 to 30,00 in 1988, increases to 71,00 in 2009 and again decreases. The values are approximate. — **Fig. 15**

The highest boosts for the agriculture water withdrawal were in 2008 (+72.37%), 2013 (+53.98%), 2006 (+24.46%), 1997 (+16.97%), and 1971 (+15.54%), for the industrial water withdrawal in 1981 (+109.3%), 2010 (+70.22%), 1982 (+44.79%), 2011 (+41.97%), and 2012 (+37.16%), and for the municipal water withdrawal in 1989 (+26.42%), 2007 (+20.41%), 1990 (+19.39%), 2019 (+14.27%), and 2000 (+8.61%) in contrast to previous years. The highest shrinks for the agriculture water withdrawal were in 2007 (−39.05%), 2012 (−20.67%), 2000 (−14.75%), 1998 (−13.9%), and 1999 (−10.76%), for the industrial water withdrawal in 2015 (−46.82%), 2013 (−34.66%), 2014 (−30.84%), 2008 (−25.33%), and 1975 (−20.43%), and for the municipal water withdrawal in 2008 (−18.08%), 2018 (−15.27%), 2013 (−14.01%), 1988 (−11.85%), and 2016 (−9.11%) as compared to previous years (Fig. 15).

The foreseen level of the agricultural water withdrawal in the total water withdrawal for 2020–2050 is tracking a slight expand trend with values of 54.77% in 2030, 55.87% in 2040, and 56.97% in 2050 (Fig. 15a). On the contrary, the predicted values of the industrial water withdrawal in the total water withdrawal are on decrease trend, i.e. 4.41% in 2030, 3.93% in 2040, and 3.46% in 2050 (Fig. 15b). The same reduction trend is followed by the values of the municipal water withdrawal that is 40.69% in 2030, 40.04% in 2040, and 39.4% in 2050 (Fig. 15c).

2.8 Finland

The analysis of the total renewable water resources per capita underlines a continuous reduction trend between 1961 and 2019. Therefore, the highest falls were in 1962 (−0.69%), 1963 (−0.62%), 1983 (−0.56%), 1984 and 1993 (−0.53%), and 1973 (−0.52%) against previous years. The forecast for 2020–2050 period underscores the same decrease trend, with an average decline rate of 0.18% per year. Taking into account the level from 2019 was 19,883.75 m³/inhabit/year, the predicted values are 19,496.72 m³/inhabit/year (2030), 19,144.89 m³/inhabit/year (2040), and 18,793.06 m³/inhabit/year (2050) (Fig. 16a).

Two line graphs depict the evolution and forecast of total renewable water resources and withdrawal resources. 1. The line follows a declining trend, as do the forecasts for 2020 and 2050. 2. The line exhibits a downward trend, with two peaks in 1985 and 2006. The numbers are estimates. — **Fig. 16**

Referring to the total water withdrawal per capita between 1970 and 2019, the rise periods (1970–1985, 1991–1995, 2000, 2006, 2008–2013, 2015, and 2018–2019) alternate with decline periods (1986–1990, 1996–1999, 2001–2005, 2007, 2014, and 2016–2017). The highest booms were in 2006 (+190.22%), 2018 (+21.49%), 2019 (+3.39%), 1991 (+1.57%), and 1992 (+1.47%), and the highest falls were in 2007 (−65.43%), 1990 (−12.68%), 1989 (−11.28%), 1988 (−10.17%), and 1987 (−9.3%). All the estimate values for 2020–2050 period are lower than the level from 2019 (524.21 m³/inhabit/year), namely, 366.34 m³/inhabit/year in 2030, 292.29 m³/inhabit/year in 2040, and 218.23 m³/inhabit/year in 2050 (Fig. 16b).

The weight of the total water withdrawal per capita in the total renewable water resources per capita, between 1970 and 2019, followed the evolution of the total water withdrawal per capita with values bounded by 2.05 and 5.97%.

The same evolution is highlighted for the agricultural, industrial and municipal water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal between 1996 and 1999, the agricultural and industrial water withdrawal between 1991 and 1999, the agricultural and municipal water withdrawal between 1996 and 2007, and the industrial and municipal water withdrawal between 2008 and 2015 (Fig. 17).

Three line graphs indicate the percentages of agricultural, industrial, and municipal water withdrawals in Finland. The evolution of water withdrawal is from 1975 to 2017, with forecast data from 2019 to 2050. a, the line representing agricultural water withdrawal ranges between 1,00 and 2,00 from 1990 to 2006, gradually increases to 17,00 in 2017, and then declines. b, the line begins to decline from 80,00, steeping down to 25,00 in 2006, then increases to 75,00 in 2008, then declines. c, — **Fig. 17**

The highest increases for the agriculture water withdrawal were in 2007 (+300.22%), 2008 (+27.42%), 1991 (+27.41%), 2009 (+21.32%), and 1992 (+20.67%), for the industrial water withdrawal in 2007 (+184.99%), 2018 (+9.52%), 1991 (+0.28%), 1992 (+0.27%), and 1993 (+0.26%), and for the municipal water withdrawal in 2007 (+186.84%), 2019 (+20.69%), 2000 (+8.06%), 2016 (+2.96%), and 2004 and 2005 (+1.14%) as compared to previous years. The agriculture water withdrawal recorded only three falls, i.e., 2006 (−43.81%), 2018 (−17.86%), and 2019 (−3.45%). The highest diminishes were for the industrial water withdrawal in 2006 (−66.04%), 2016 (−3.47%), 2019 (−3.45%), 2013 (−2.01%), and 2012 (−2%) and for the municipal water withdrawal in 2006 (−65.55%), 2018 (−17.86%), 2014 (−3.5%), 1991 (−2.55%), and 1992 (−2.52%) as opposed to previous years (Fig. 17).

The expected values of the agricultural water withdrawal in the total water withdrawal for 2020–2050 track the decrease trend started in 2018 with levels of 12.55% in 2030, 11.42% in 2040, and 10.29% in 2050 (Fig. 17a). The same drop trend is projected for the industrial water withdrawal in the total water withdrawal, such as 58.05% in 2030, 52.49% in 2040, and 46.94% in 2050 (Fig. 17b). A smoother decrease trend is anticipated for the municipal water withdrawal, for example 16.54% in 2030, 16.43% in 2040, and 16.31% in 2050 (Fig. 17c).

2.9 France

The total renewable water resources per capita recorded a continuous, steady reduction trend, between 1961 and 2019, without any increase. The highest drops were in 1963 (−1.37%), 1962 (−1.36%), 1964 (−1.29%), 1965 (−1.15%), and 1966 (−0.99%) versus previous years. The predicted values for 2020–2050 also decrease with an average decline rate of 0.22% per year, starting with 3,239.69 m³/inhabit/year down to 3,164.43 m³/inhabit/year (2030), 3,096.06 m³/inhabit/year (2040), and 3,027.7 m³/inhabit/year (2050) (Fig. 18a).

Two line graphs of evolution and forecasting of total renewable water resources and water withdrawal. The evolution is marked between 1961 and 2020, the forecast for 2021 to 2050, a, the line follows a decrease in trend, starts at 4,500,00 and ends at 3,000,00 in 2049. b, the line follows a decrease in trend, reaches a peak value of 700,00 in 1992 and decreases to 0.00 in 2050 with ups and downs. The values are approximate. — **Fig. 18**

By exploring the evolution of the total water withdrawal per capita between 1980 and 2019, its overall decreasing trend can be underscored, even if the expand periods (1981–1992, 1998–2000, 2011, 2014–2015, and 2017) are interchanging with fall periods (1993–1997, 2011–2010, 2012–2013, 2016, and 2018–2019). The highest growths were in 2011 (+4.91%), 2015 (+2.59%), 1998 (+2.22%), 1991 (+2.1%), and 1999 (+2.09%), and the highest drops were in 2008 (−7.94%), 2012 (−7.41%), 2016 (−6.28%), 1997 (−5.87%), and 1996 (−5.58%). The forecast level for 2020–2050 period is lower than the level from 2019 (412.24 m³/inhabit/year). It is achievable only until 2040 (137.86 m³/inhabit/year) or at most until 2045 (126.75 m³/inhabit/year), because after this year the level decline under 100 m³/inhabit/year and starting with 2049, the level is negative which is less probable to happen (Fig. 18b).

The weight of the total water withdrawal per capita in the total renewable water resources per capita, between 1980 and 2019, maintained the decrease trend of the total water withdrawal per capita with few rise periods, with variations between 14.68% in 1980 and 12.72% in 2019.

The agricultural, industrial and municipal water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal have recorded the same evolution in not many long periods of time, except 1993–1997 for the agricultural and industrial and 1998–2002 for the industrial and municipal. The highest increases for the agriculture water withdrawal were in 2015 (+47.56%), 2009 (+23.96%), 2003 (+22.54%), 1998 (+12.22%), and 1999 (+10.35%), for the industrial water withdrawal in 2014 (+4.75%), 2008 (+3.12%), 2011 (+2.99%), 2007 (+1.9%), and 2002 (+1.43%), and for the municipal water withdrawal in 2008 (+8.03%), 1997 (+5.52%), 2016 (+5.51%), 2013 (+5.28%), and 2012 (+5.27%) in contrast to previous years. The highest shrinks for the agriculture water withdrawal were 2008 (−28.91%), 2014 (−24.24%), 2007 (−12.91%), 2002 (−8.99%), and 2017 (−7.24%), for the industrial water withdrawal in 2015 (−3.95%), 2003 (−3.04%), 2009 (−2.74%), 2016 (−1.95%), and 2012 (−1.77%) and for the municipal water withdrawal in 2011 (−7.8%), 2003 (−4.96%), 2015 (−4.14%), 2014 (−4.11%), and 1998 (−2.64%) against previous years (Fig. 19).

Three line graphs of agricultural, industrial and municipal water withdrawal in France from 1985 to 2050. a, the line increases and decreases between 1990 and 2020, the forecast for 2020-2050 follows a decrease in trend. b, the line increases and decreases between 1990 and 2020, the forecast for 2020-2050 follows a decrease in trend. c, the line follows an increase in trend with drops and immediate peaks, the highest peak value is in 1945 after that the line decreases. The values are approximate. — **Fig. 19**

The foreseen of the agricultural water withdrawal in the total water withdrawal for 2020–2050 move on a decline trend, with values lower than those of 2019 (11.13%), such as 10.11% in 2030, 9.19% in 2040, and 8.28% in 2050 (Fig. 19a). The values of the industrial water withdrawal in the total water withdrawal are planned to fall as well, this is 68.48% in 2030, 67.96% in 2040, and 67.43% in 2050 (Fig. 19b). Conversely, an increase trend is expected for the municipal water withdrawal in the total water withdrawal, in particular, 21.18% in 2030, 21.99% in 2040, and 24.29% in 2050 (Fig. 19c).

2.10 Germany

The total renewable water resources per capita recorded a fluctuate evolution of a decline trend between 1961 and 2019. There are four decline periods (1962–1973, 1985–1997, 2000–2004, and 2011–2019) and three rise periods (1974–1984, 1989, and 2005–2010). The highest falls were in 1963 and 1964 (−0.79%), 1965 (−0.76%), 1962 (−0.75%), 1966 (−0.73%), and 1967 (−0.7%), and the highest growths were in 2008 (+0.26%), 2007 (+0.24%), 1982 (+0.23%), 1981 (+0.22%), and 1980, 1983 and 2009 (+0.2%) as opposed to previous years. The probable level for 2020–2050 declines as well with an average decline rate of 0.26% per year, taking into account that the level from 2019 was 1,843.93 m³/inhabit/year, i.e. 1,792.68 m³/inhabit/year (2030), 1,746.08 m³/inhabit/year (2040), and 1,699.48 m³/inhabit/year (2050) (Fig. 20a).

Two line graphs represent the evolution and forecasting of total renewable water resources as well as withdrawal. a, the line is trending downward, with two humps between 1977-1989 and 2005 and 2017. b, the line begins at 650,00 and decreases steadily over time. The numbers are approximate. — **Fig. 20**

The same decline trend is tracked by the evolution of the total water withdrawal per capita between 1991 and 2019, with the difference that there are only two diminish periods (1991–2007 and 2011–2019) and one increase period (+0.58% in 2008, +0.52% in 2009, and +0.4% in 2010 as compared to previous years). The highest diminishes were in 2013 (−8.86%), 2012 (−8.08%), 2011 (−7.4%), 1998 (−3.33%), and 1992 (−3.11%). The expected values for 2020–2050 are lower than the level from 2019 (341.03 m³/inhabit/year) and are possible for 2030 (211.13 m³/inhabit/year) and for 2040 (98.42 m³/inhabit/year). Thus, beyond 2040, the values are below 100 m³/inhabit/year and starting with 2050, the values are negative which is not reasonable (Fig. 20b).

The weight of the total water withdrawal per capita in the total renewable water resources per capita, between 1991 and 2019, registered the same decline trend, the highest value was recorded in 191 (33.28%) and the lowest value was the same in 2017–2019 period (18.49%).

There are matches among the evolution of agricultural, industrial and municipal water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal, for example in 1992–1998 and 2008–2010 in the case of the agricultural and industrial, in 1999–2007 and 2011–2019 for the agricultural and municipal, and in 2017–2019 for the agricultural, industrial and municipal because their level remained unchanged. The highest expands for the agriculture water withdrawal were in 2013 (+15.57%), 2012 (+15.07%), 2011 (+14.74%), 2008 (+7.49%), and 2009 (+6.88%), for the industrial water withdrawal in 2008–2010 (+0.34%), 2003–2004 (+0.06%), and 2002 (+0.05%), and for the municipal water withdrawal in 2013 (+8.81%), 2012 (+8%), 2011 (+7.32%), 1992 (+3.81%), and 2007 (+3.69%) against previous years. The highest cuts for the agriculture water withdrawal were in 1998 (−30.62%), 1997 (−24.16%), 1996 (−18.06%), 1995 (−13.63%), and 1994 (−11.89%), for the industrial water withdrawal in 2013 (−4.56%), 2012 (−3.69%), 2011 (−3.05%), 2007 (−1.45%), and 2006 (−1.36%) and for the municipal water withdrawal in 2010 (−1.03%), 2008 and 2009 (−1.02%), 2004 (−0.13%), and 2002 and 2003 (−0.12%) versus previous years (Fig. 21).

Three line graphs indicate the evolution and forecasting of agricultural, industrial and municipal water withdrawal in Germany between 1991 and 2050. a, the line steadily decreases from 2.50 to 0.70 between 1991 and 1997, again increases from 2006, reaches 1.40 between 2012 and 2018, the forecast for 2018-2048 is the decline periods. b, the line follows a steady decrease in trend, starts at 76.00 in 1991 and decreases to 40.00 after 2048. c, the line steadily follows an increase in trend, starts at 20.00 in 1991 and increases to 55.00. The values are approximate. — **Fig. 21**

The projected value of the agricultural water withdrawal in the total water withdrawal for 2020–2050 follows a decrease trend, with values lower than 1,4% (2019), for instance 1.23% in 2030, 1.07% in 2040, and 0.92% in 2050 (Fig. 21a). The level of the industrial water withdrawal in the total water withdrawal is also on a decline trend, e.g. 52.14% in 2030, 46.46% in 2040, and 40.78% in 2050 (Fig. 21b). By opposite, the level of the municipal water withdrawal in the total water withdrawal trails an increase tendency, like 43.13% in 2030, 48.97% in 2040, and 54.82% in 2050 (Fig. 21c).

2.11 Ireland

The analysis of the evolution of the total renewable water resources per capita, between 1961 and 2019, emphasizes a reduction trend. There are two decline periods (1962–1986 and 1990–2017) and only one growth period (+0.02% in 1987, +0.1% in 1988, and 0.08% in 1989 versus previous years). The highest drops were in 2007 (−2.17%), 2006 (−2.11%), 2008 (−2.07%), 2005 (−2.01%), and 2004 (−1.92%) as compared to previous years. The forecast value for 2020–2050 records the same decline trend from 10,650.29 m³/inhabit/year in 2019 to 9,104.5 m³/inhabit/year in 2030, 7,699.13 m³/inhabit/year in 2040, and 6,293.77 m³/inhabit/year in 2050 (Fig. 22a).

Two line graphs denote the evolution and forecast of total renewable water resources per capita between 1961 and 2019. a, the line follows a reduction trend, one growth period is between 1987 and 1988 and decreases thereafter. b, the line marks the growth period between 1986 and 1995, then follows a steady reduction trend, the highest drops are in the years 2007 and 2010, again increases till 2019, the forecast value for 2020-2050 records decline trend. The values are approximate. — **Fig. 22**

The evolution of the total water withdrawal per capita between 1980 and 2019 has shown a fluctuation of fall periods (1981–1983, 1995–2002, 2005, 2007, 2009, 2015, and 2018) and rise periods (1984–1994, 2003–2004, 2006, 2008, 2010–2014, 2016–2017, and 2019). The highest diminishes were in 2007 (−24.72%), 2018 (−23.15%), 2005 (−23.11%), 2009 (−16.02%), and 2002 (−4.45%), and the highest boosts were in 2019 (+40.84%), 2010 (+23.14%), 2008 (+18.81%), 2006 (+16.22%), and 2017 (+11.21%) as compared to previous years. The anticipated level for 2020–2015 is below the level from 2019 (292.27 m³/inhabit/year), for instance 179.5 m³/inhabit/year in 2030, 148.42 m³/inhabit/year in 2040, and 117.34 m³/inhabit/year in 2050 (Fig. 22b).

The weight of the total water withdrawal per capita in the total renewable water resources per capita, between 1980 and 2019, recorded variations between 2.71% (the highest level) in 2019 and 1.4% (the lowest level) in 2007.

The evolution of agricultural and municipal water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal recorded the same evolution in 1981–1994 and 2011–2016. Conversely, the industrial water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal registered an opposite trend against the municipal water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal in 1981–2004, 2006, 2008–2009, and 2011–2019 (Fig. 23).

The highest increases for the agriculture water withdrawal were in 2007 (+24.89%), 2015 (+22.85%), 2018 (+19.62%), 2009 (+12.05%), and 1981 (+1.97%), for the industrial water withdrawal in 2009 (+70.26%), 2008 (+51.34%), 2018 (+39.83%), 2011 (+21.19%), and 2012 (+16.76%), and for the municipal water withdrawal in 2019 (+42.18%), 2006 (+13.58%), 2003 (+8.98%), 2004 (+7.73%), and 2002 (+5.39%) as compared to previous years. The highest falls for the agriculture water withdrawal were in 2019 (−29.92%), 2010 (−23.39%), 2008 (−20.91%), 2006 (−18.93%), and 2017 (−16.83%), for the industrial water withdrawal in 2006 (−40.6%), 2019 (−29.92%), 2007 (−24.36%), 2004 (−21.07%), and 2003 (−18.35%) and for the municipal water withdrawal in 2019 (−27.67%), 2009 (−11.67%), 2015 (−5.42%), and 2012 (−4.72%) as opposed to previous years (Fig. 23).

The estimated level of the agricultural water withdrawal in the total water withdrawal for 2020–2050 tracks a decline trend, starting with 4.56% in 2019 and reaching 2.71% in 2030 and 1.03% in 2040. The predictions for 2041–2050 cannot be used because beyond 2041 the level in lower than 1% and further than 2047 the level is negative (Fig. 23a). The level of the industrial water withdrawal in the total water withdrawal is on a fall trend as well, for instance 29.19% in 2030, 22.61% in 2040, and 16.02% in 2050 (Fig. 23b). By contrast, the level of the municipal water withdrawal in the total water withdrawal follows a growth trend, e.g. 68.1% in 2030, 76.36% in 2040, and 84.63% in 2050 (Fig. 23c).

Three line graphs of evolution and forecasting of agricultural, industrial and municipal water withdrawal in Ireland between 1980 and 2050. a, the line marks the growth period between 1980 and 2010, two peaks are in the years 2007 and 2010, the line decreases after 2010. b, the line records the decline period between 1980 and 2007, the highest drop is in the year 2007, again increases above 50,00 in 2019 and decreases thereafter. c, the line overall follows an increase in trend but the decline period is between 2004 and 2019. The values are approximate. — **Fig. 23**

2.12 Italy

The evolution of the total renewable water resources per capita, between 1961 and 2019, underlines a decline trend with two long decrease periods (1962–1994 and 2000–2017) and two short periods (1995–1999 and 2018–2019). Firstly, the highest diminishes were in 1963 and 1964 (−0.81%), 1965 (−0.78%), 1962 (−0.77%), 1966 (−0.74%), and 1967 (−0.71%) against previous years. Secondly, the highest boosts were in 1997 and 1998 (+0.28%), 1996 (+0.19%), 1999 (+0.15%), 2019 (+0.13%), and 2018 (+0.08%) versus previous years. The foresee value for 2020–2050 registers also a decrease trend from 3,159.37 m³/inhabit/year in 2019 to 3.058.91 m³/inhabit/year in 2030, 2.967.58 m³/inhabit/year in 2040, and 2.876.25 m³/inhabit/year in 2050 (Fig. 24a).

From 1961 to 2050, two line graphs depict the evolution and forecasting of Italy's total renewable and withdrawal water resources. a, the line follows a downtrend; the growth period is between 1997 and 2001, and the line then follows a downward trend. b, the line is declining steadily; the highest growth period is between 2006 and 2009, and it steadily declines during the forecast period. The numbers are approximate. — **Fig. 24**

As for the evolution of the total water withdrawal per capita between 1970 and 2019, each rise period (1971–1980, 1991–2000, 2008, and 2018–2019) alternated with a reduction period (1981–1990, 2001–2007, and 2009–2017). The highest increases were in 2008 (+59.5%), 1997 (+1.42%), 1998 (+1.41%), 1996 (+1.34%), and 1995 (+1.23%) as opposed to previous years. The highest drops were in 2009 (−37.34%), 2005 (−4.97%), 2007 (−4.95%), 2004 (−4.87%), and 2006 (−4.84%) versus previous years. The expected values for 2020–2050 are lower than the 654.62 m³/inhabit/year (2019), e.g. 467.68 m³/inhabit/year in 2030, 444.95 m³/inhabit/year in 2040, and 392.21 m³/inhabit/year in 2050 (Fig. 24b).

The weight of the total water withdrawal per capita in the total renewable water resources per capita, between 1970 and 2019, registered moderate differences from 21.75% in 1970 to 17.87% in 2019, except 2008–2009 period. The peak of 28.1% was recorded in 2008 and the minimum value of 17.66% was recorded in 2009.

There is a similar evolution among the agricultural, industrial and municipal water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal, namely in 1971–1980 and 2009–2013 in the case of the agricultural and municipal, in 1981–1999 and 2008–2009 for the industrial and municipal, and in 2016–2019 for the agricultural, industrial and municipal because their level remained constant. Between 1971 and 2000, and 2010 and 2013 the evolution of industrial water withdrawal was perfectly opposed to agricultural water withdrawal (Fig. 25).

Three line graphs of evolution and forecasting of agricultural, industrial and municipal water withdrawal in Germany between 1991 and 2050. a, the line follows a decrease in trend, the growth period is between 1979 and 1988, the highest drops is in 2008, again increases, the forecast value for 2021-2050 marks the reduction trend. b, the line rises between 1970 and 1979, decreases between 1979 and 1988, again marks the growth between 1997 and 2006, again fluctuates, the forecast period marks the steady decline. c, the line marks an increase in trend, the highest drops are between 1979 and 1988 and 2006 and 2009, after that the line rises and the forecast value decreases — **Fig. 25**

The highest increases for the agriculture water withdrawal were in 2009 (+67.11%), 2010 (+4.45%), 2011 (+4.24%), 2012 (+4.04%), and 2013 (+3.98%), for the industrial water withdrawal in 2009 (+49.53%), 1971 (+5.51%), 1972 (+5.09%), 1973 (+4.72%), and 1974 (+4.4%), and for the municipal water withdrawal in 2009 (+60.64%), 2007 (+5.44%), 2006 (+5.22%), 2005 (+4.3%), and 2004 (+4.1%) in contrast to previous years. The highest reductions for the agriculture water withdrawal were in 2008 (−34.17%), 2007 (−2.83%), 2006 (−2.51%), 2005 (−2.05%), and 1991 (−1.95%), for the industrial water withdrawal in 2008 (−41.03%), 2013 (−8.1%), 2012 (−7.63%), 2011 (−7.13%), and 2010 (−6.7%) and for the municipal water withdrawal in 2008 (−37.14%), 2000 (−0.79%), 1990 (−0.7%), 1989 (−0.67%), and 1988 (−0.65%) as opposed to previous years (Fig. 25).

The expected value of the agricultural, industrial and municipal water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal for 2020–2050 follows the same decrease trend. Thus, the agricultural water withdrawal in the total water withdrawal recorded a value of 49.73% in 2019 and it is possible to register 46.55% in 2030, 43.66% in 2040, and 40.77% in 2050 (Fig. 25a). The industrial water withdrawal in the total water withdrawal registered a level of 22.52% in 2019 and it is likely to score 22.1% in 2030, 21.71% in 2040, and 21.33% in 2050 (Fig. 25b). The municipal water withdrawal in the total water withdrawal recorded a level of 27.75% in 2019 and it is supposed to register 28.58% in 2030, 27.41% in 2040, and 28.24% in 2050 (Fig. 25c,b).

2.13 Luxembourg

Between 1961 and 2019, the evolution of the total renewable water resources per capita recorded a continuous fall. The highest decreases were in 2009 and 2010 (−2.24%), 2011 (−2.2%), 2012 (−2.18%), 2008 and 2013–2017 (−2.16%), and 2017 (−2.04%) as opposed to previous years. The forecast level for 2020–2050 tracks a fall trend, as well, from 5,684.32 m³/inhabit/year in 2019 to 4,481 m³/inhabit/year in 2030, 3,387,316 m³/inhabit/year in 2040, and 2,293,29 m³/inhabit/year in 2050 (Fig. 26a).

The evolution and projection of Luxembourg's renewable water resources and water withdrawal between 1961 and 2050 are illustrated in two line graphs. The line begins at 9,000,00 in 1961 and ends at 2,000,00 in 2049. It follows a downward trend. b, the line exhibits a rising and falling trend; the forecast period captures the steady decline. The numbers are approximations. — **Fig. 26**

Conversely, the total water withdrawal per capita scored an evolution in which the increase periods (1971–1975, 1981–1985, 1996–1999, 2014, and 2017–2018) fluctuate with the decline periods (1976–1980, 1986–1995, 2000–2013, 2015–2016, and 2019). The highest boosts were in 1991 (+13.64%), 2018 (+12.14%), 1982 (+12.01%), 1983 (+10.71%), and 1984 (+9.68%), and the highest diminishes were in 2012 (−10.24%), 2019 (−7.32%), 2013 (−5.24%), 2009 (−4.96%), and 2008 (−4.81%) in contrast to previous years. The predicted value for 2020–2050 follows the overall decrease trend, such as 61.59 m³/inhabit/year in 2030, 44.78 m³/inhabit/year in 2040, and 27.97 m³/inhabit/year in 2050 (Fig. 26b).

Between 1970 and 2019, the weight of the total water withdrawal per capita in the total renewable water resources per capita recorded the maximum level of 1.91% in 1985 and the minimum level of 0.99% in 1970.

Particular for Luxembourg is that data is available starting with 1995 for the agricultural and industrial water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal and beginning with 1990 for the municipal water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal. The agricultural and industrial water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal registered the same evolution in 1996–2011 and 2016–2019 and the municipal water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal scored an opposed line. The highest boosts for the agriculture water withdrawal were in 2011 (+389.69%), 2015 (+137.5%), 2013 (+54.87%), 2017 (+29.82%), and 2019 (+27.06%), for the industrial water withdrawal in 2019 (+145.2%), 2014 (+41.78%), 2011 (+21.58%), 2017 (+19.84%), and 2012 (+12.02%), and for the municipal water withdrawal in 2013 (+3.76%), 2010 (+2.48%), 2009 (+2.13%), 2008 (+2.05%), and 2007 (+1.98%) against previous years. The highest declines for the agriculture water withdrawal were in 2016 (−56.76%), 2012 (−56.4%), 2010 (−9.23%), 2014 (−5.48%), and 2009 (−5.05%), for the industrial water withdrawal in 2013 (−44.19%), 2016 (−34.41%), 2015 (−32.14%), 2010 (−26.88%), and 2009 (−18.47%) and for the municipal water withdrawal in 2019 (−5.81%), 1995 (−3.54%), 1994 (−3.3%), 1993 (−3.09%), and 1992 (−2.89%) as compared to previous years (Fig. 27).

Three line graphs of evolution and forecasting of agricultural, industrial and municipal water withdrawal in Luxembourg between 1991 and 2050. a, the line decreases from 0.40 to 0.20 between 1995 and 2010, after that the line rises, the forecast period records the steady increase. b, the line decreases from 25.00 to negative 30.00, the growth period is marked between 2010 and 2019. c, the line marks the steady decline between 1989 and 1994 and increases thereafter, the forecast period also records the growth period. The values are approximate. — **Fig. 27**

The foreseeable value of the agricultural and municipal water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal tracks an increasing trend and it is opposite to the industrial water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal. Thus, for the agricultural water withdrawal which scored 1.22% in 2019 and it is predicted a value of 1.29% in 2030, 1.61% in 2040, and 1.92% in 2050 (Fig. 27a). For the municipal water withdrawal, which registered 89.86% in 2019, it is projected a level of 96.7% in 2030, but starting with 2036 the level is higher than 100% and will not be possible to archive (Fig. 27c). Due to the height rate of reduction of the industrial water withdrawal until 2019, the expected values are below zero starting with 2020 and the forecast values until 2050 cannot be used (Fig. 27b).

2.14 Malta

The evolution of the total renewable water resources per capita, between 1961 and 2019, scored a reduction trend, which comprise three long decline periods (1962–1966, 1972–1995, and 1997–2019) and two short increase periods (1967–1971 and 1996). The highest drops were in 1995 (−67.64%), 2013 (−1.02%), 2012 (−0.97%), 2014 (−0.94%), and 1984–1987 and 1997–1998 (−0.91%) versus previous years. The highest rises were in 1996 (+203.77%), 1969 (+0.23%), 1968 (+0.21%), 1970 (+0.15%), and 1967 (+0.07%) as opposed to previous years. The forecast level for 2020–2050 is lower than the level from 2019 (114.68 m³/inhabit/year), namely, 103.43 m³/inhabit/year in 2030, 95.31 m³/inhabit/year in 2040, and 87.18 m³/inhabit/year in 2050 (Fig. 28a).

Two line graphs indicate the evolution and forecast of total renewable water resources and per capita water withdrawal between 1980 and 2050. 1. The line falls from 160,00 to 40,00 in 1995, then rises to 130,00 in 1997 and continues to fall. 2. The line rises from 60.00 to 145.00 between 1980 and 1995, then falls between 1995 and 2013, then rises after 2013. The values are approximations. — **Fig. 28**

As regards the total water withdrawal per capita, data collected from AQUASTAT database cannot be analyzed due to the errors, i.e. the value of the total water withdrawal per capita is higher than the total renewable water resources per capita in 1993–2003 and 2014–2019 (Fig. 28b). Therefore, since the level of the agricultural, industrial and municipal water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal is based on the data of total water withdrawal per capita, it cannot be studied.

2.15 The Netherlands

The analysis of the total renewable water resources per capita evolution, between 1961 and 2019, highlighted a constant reduction. The highest falls were in 1962 and 1963 (−1.36%), 1964 (−1.33%), 1965 (−1.3%), 1966 (−1.26%), and 1967 (−1.22%) against previous years. The expected value for 2020–2050 follows the same decrease trend, from 5,322.53 m³/inhabit/year in 2019 to 5,194.03 m³/inhabit/year in 2030, 5,077.24 m³/inhabit/year in 2040, and 4,960,45 m³/inhabit/year in 2050 (Fig. 29a).

Two line graphs denote the evolution and forecast of total renewable water and withdrawal resources in the Netherlands between 1961 and 2050. a, the line follows a decrease in trend, starts at 7,900,00 in 1961 and decreases to 5,000,00 in 2050. b, the line decreases from 650,00 in 1980 to 400,00 in 1996 and the line records the growth period between 1996 and 2004 and the line decreases. The forecast period records a steady decrease. The values are approximate. — **Fig. 29**

As regards the evolution of the total water withdrawal per capita, it recorded both decline periods (1981–1996, 2006–2008, and 2011–2017) and boost periods (1997–2005, 2009–2010, and 2018–2019). The highest shrinks were in 2014 (−9.79%), 2013 (−8.35%), 2015 (−5.95%), 1996 (−5.47%), and 2016 (−4.85%), and the highest rises were in 2003 (+7.42%), 1997 (+6.83%), 2002 (+6.71%), 1998 (+6.33%), and 1999 (+5.89%) versus previous years. The forecast value for 2020–2050 tracks a decrease trend, for example 477.47 m³/inhabit/year in 2030, 464.71 m³/inhabit/year in 2040, and 451.94 m³/inhabit/year in 2050 (Fig. 29b).

In 1980–2019, the weight of the total water withdrawal per capita in the total renewable water resources per capita fluctuated between 8.22% as minimum value (in 1998) and 12.69% as maximum value (in 2005).

There are partial similarities among the evolution of the agricultural, industrial, and municipal water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal, namely in 1997–2006 for the agricultural and municipal water withdrawal, in 2009–2017 for the agricultural and industrial water withdrawal. The municipal water withdrawal evolution was complete opposed to the industrial water withdrawal. The highest expands for the agriculture water withdrawal were in 2003 (+192.34%), 2018 (+146.78%), 2013 (+93.16%), 2006 (+66.47%), and 2017 (+58.89%), for the industrial water withdrawal in 1997 (+2.52%), 2019 (+2.23%), 1998 (+2.14%), 1999 (+1.84%), and 2001 (+1.65%), and for the municipal water withdrawal in 2017 (+35.7%), 2018 (+13.5%), 2014 (+10.71%), 2013 (+9.22%), and 2015 (+7.16%) as compared to previous years. The highest drops for the agriculture water withdrawal were in 2004 (−50.04%), 2012 (−48.93%), 2001 (−42.95%), 2007 (−39.09%), and 2000 (−32.59%), for the industrial water withdrawal in 2016 (−9.08%), 2019 (−6.72%), 2013 (−1.78%), 2015 (−1.54%), and 2014 (−1.35%), and for the municipal water withdrawal in 2003 (−8.27%), 2002 (−7.66%), 2005 (−6.42%), 2004 (−6.14%), and 1997 (−6.1%) versus previous years (Fig. 30).

Three line graphs represent the evolution and forecasting of agricultural, industrial, and municipal water withdrawal in Germany between 1991 and 2050. a, the line rises from 2,40,00 in 1991 to 3,80 in 1994, then falls from 1994 to 2017. The line then rises to 3,50 in 2019 before falling again. b, the line indicates the growth period between 1997 and 2012. c, the line rises from 16,00 in 1991 to 19,00 in 1994, with a decline period between 1995 and 2012 and an increase after that. The forecast for 2019-2050 is between 23,00 and 24,00. The numbers are estimates. — **Fig. 30**

For 2020–2050 period, the predicted value of the agricultural and municipal water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal trails a fall trend, which is slightly in the case of the municipal water withdrawal. In contrast, the industrial water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal is expected to increase. Hence, the agricultural water withdrawal will record 2.49% in 2030, 2.02% in 2040, and 1.54% in 2050 (Fig. 30a). The municipal water withdrawal will register 23.27% in 2030, 23.15% in 2040, and 23.04% in 2050 (Fig. 30c). The industrial water withdrawal will score 73.81% in 2030, 74.02% in 2040, and 74.23% in 2050 (Fig. 30b).

2.16 Poland

The evolution of the total renewable water resources per capita, between 1961 and 2019, can be described by one long decrease period (1962–1999) and one relatively long expand period (2000–2019) which was interrupted by a single fall in 2008. The highest drops were in 1962 (−1.23%), 1963 (−1.13%), 1964 (−1.04%), 1965 (−0.96%), and 1982 (−0.95%), and the highest rises were in 2013 and 2014 (+0.18%), 2012 (+0.16%), 2015 (+0.15%), 2003 and 2016 (+0.12%), and 2002 and 2004 (+0.11%) as opposed to previous years. The forecast level for 2020–2050 tracks a diminish trend, from 1,596.82 m³/inhabit/year in 2019 to 1,521.35 m³/inhabit/year in 2030, 1,452.75 m³/inhabit/year in 2040, and 1,384.14 m³/inhabit/year in 2050 (Fig. 31a).

Two line graphs denote the evolution and forecast of Poland's renewable water and water withdrawal resources per capita. a, the line steadily declines until around 2001, then slightly increases until around 2017, and the forecast for 2017-2050 records the decline period. b, the line records the period of growth from 1970 to 1992 and then declines. The numbers are approximations. — **Fig. 31**

The total water withdrawal per capita scored an evolution in which the rise periods (1971–1985, 2003, 2007, 2009, 2012, and 2016) fluctuate with the decline periods (1986–2002, 2004–2006, 2008, 2010–2011, 2013–2015, and 2017–2019). The highest increases were in 2012 (+6.53%), 1971 (+5.95%), 1972 (+5.51%), 2007 (+5.27%), and 1973 (+5.12%) in contrast to previous years. The highest falls were in 2008 (−7.1%), 2013 (−6.48%), 2010 (−5.62%), 2017 (−4.64%), and 1992 (−3.41) contrary to previous years. The expected value for 2020–2050 follows the decrease trend started in 1986, such as 226.41 m³/inhabit/year in 2030, 195.68 m³/inhabit/year in 2040, and 164.96 m³/inhabit/year in 2050 (Fig. 31b).

The weight of the total water withdrawal per capita in the total renewable water resources per capita, between 1970 and 2019, registered the maximum level of 27.12% in 1985 and the minimum level of 16.3% in 2019.

For agricultural water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal, data is available starting with 1970 and for industrial and municipal water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal, data is provided beginning with 1992. The agricultural and municipal water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal registered the same evolution in 1993–2000, 2002–2013, and 2016–2019. The industrial water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal recorded an opposite evolution against the agricultural and municipal water withdrawal in 1993–2000, 2003–2006, 2011, and 2017–2019 (Fig. 32).

Three line graphs of the evolution and forecast of agricultural, industrial and municipal water withdrawals in Poland, a, b and c, respectively. a, the line starts decreasing from 17.00 in 1970 to 9.00 till around 1979, again from 1979 to 2015, the line increases and decreases, and the forecast period ranges between 13.00 and 17.00. b, the line follows a decrease in trend, the line goes to a peak around 1998 and the forecast period is a decline period. c, the line follows a decrease increase in trend, the forecast period marks the steady increase. The values are approximate. — **Fig. 32**

The highest increases for the agriculture water withdrawal were in 2018 (+37.12%), 2002 (+10.97%), 2008 (+10.22%), 2004 (+6.49%), and 2010 (+5.47%), for the industrial water withdrawal in 2013 (+7.1%), 2008 (+5.81%), 2010 (+4.16%), 2002 (+1.87%), and 1994 and 1995 (+1.49%), and for the municipal water withdrawal in 2008 (+6.77%), 2010 (+5.76%), 2018 (+5.5%), 2015 (+4.84%), and 2017 (+4.05%) against previous years. The highest diminishes for the agriculture water withdrawal were in 2003 (−9.02%), 1992 (−7.69%), 1980 (−6.89%), 1994 and 2012 (−6.74%), and 1979 (−6.71%), for the industrial water withdrawal in 2018 (−6.96%), 2007 (−6.59%), 2012 (−6%), 2009 (−4.68%), and 2003 (−2.23%) and for the municipal water withdrawal in 2012 (−6.07%), 2007 (−5.76%), 2009 (−4.68%), 1997 (−3.76%), and 1996 (−3.57%) as compared to previous years (Fig. 32).

For 2020–2050 period, the possible value of the agricultural water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal tracks a oscillate trend with values of 14.2% in 2030, 15.96% in 2040, and 13.30% in 2050 (Fig. 32a). The predicted value of the industrial water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal follows the overall decline trend of 64.09% in 2030, 62.53% in 2040, and 60.97% in 2050 (Fig. 32b). Opposite, the expected value of the municipal water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal trails an increase trend of 25.21% in 2030, 29.56% in 2040, and 33.91% in 2050 (Fig. 32c).

2.17 Slovakia

The analysis of the total renewable water resources per capita evolution, between 1961 and 2019, underscores an overall reduction trend. There are two fall periods (1994–2002 and 2007–2019) and one growth period (2003–2006, in which the rise was 0.01% in each year). The highest falls were in 1994 (−0.29%), 1995 (−0.23%), 1996 (−0.17%), 2013–2015 (−0.13%), and 1997 and 2016 (−0.12%), against previous years. The expected value for 2020–2050 follows the same decrease trend with a constant reduction value of 0.06% per year, from 9,180.85 m³/inhabit/year in 2019 to 9,124.32 m³/inhabit/year in 2030, 6,072.74 m³/inhabit/year in 2040, and 9,021.17 m³/inhabit/year in 2050 (Fig. 33a).

Two line graphs of the evolution and the forecast of water resources and water withdrawal per capita between 1993 and 2050 in Slovakia. a, the line follows a decrease in trend, a hump is marked between 2002 and 2011. b, the line follows a decrease in trend. The values are approximate. — **Fig. 33**

In the case of the evolution of the total water withdrawal per capita, it recorded the same decreasing trend with four decline periods (1994–2011, 2013, 2015–2016, and 2019) and short expand periods (therefore there are only four increases +15.82% in 2012, +10.76% in 2014, +9.91% in 2018, and +3.87% in 2017). The highest shrinks were in 2013 (−24.3%), 2007 (−14.25%), 2006 (−11.51%), 2004 (−10.19%), and 2008 (−9.43%) as opposed to previous years. The estimate level for 2020–2050 tracks a decrease trend, from 112.15 m³/inhabit/year in 2019 to 26.87 m³/inhabit/year in 2023. Starting with 2034, the level cannot be use because is negative and is not possible to be recorded (Fig. 33b).

In 1993–2019, the weight of the total water withdrawal per capita in the total renewable water resources per capita declined significantly, from 3.14% in 1993, which was the highest value, to 1.01% (the lowest value) in 2013 and 1.22% in 2019.

The agricultural and municipal water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal scored the same evolution in 1996–2002, 2008–2009, and 2013–2015. Furthermore, the industrial water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal recorded an opposed evolution compared to the agricultural water withdrawal in 1994–2004, 2006, 2008–2011, 2013–2014, and 2016–2018. The highest expands for the agriculture water withdrawal were in 2018 (+133.29%), 2003 (+62.03%), 2009 (+51%), 2017 (+46.11%), and 2015 (+34.77%), for the industrial water withdrawal in 2012 (+14.44%), 2014 (+13.69%), 1997 (+4.41%), 1996 (+4.35%), and 2001 (+3.81%), and for the municipal water withdrawal in 2013 (+27.22%), 2007 (+13.35%), 2006 (+9.93%), 2004 (+7.98%), and 2005 (+3.21%) as compared to previous years. The highest declines for the agriculture water withdrawal were in 2004 (−61.05%), 2016 (−29.54%), 2010 (−26.02%), 2001 (−20.89%), and 2005 (−19.41%), for the industrial water withdrawal in 2013 (−26.33%), 2007 (−11.71%), 2006 (−9.07%), 2018 (−6.27%), and 2009 (−5.91%), and for the municipal water withdrawal in 2014 (−12.83%), 2012 (−12.78%), 2018 (−9.41%), 1997 (−3.97%), and 1996 (−3.62%) versus previous years (Fig. 34).

Three graphs, a, b, and c, illustrate the evolution and forecast of agricultural, industrial, and municipal water withdrawal in Slovakia. a, the line decreases from 8.50 to 2.50 between 1993 and 2005, while the trend increases. b, the line begins at 51.00 in 1993 and falls to 39.00 over the forecast period, with ups and downs in between. c, the line initially decreases for a short period between 1993 and 2003 before trending upward. The numbers are approximations. — **Fig. 34**

The projected value for 2020–2050 in the case of the agricultural and municipal water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal tracks a rise trend, which is contrary to the industrial water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal. Thus, the agricultural water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal will score 13.38% in 2030, 13.5% in 2040, and 13.62% in 2050 (Fig. 34a); the municipal water withdrawal will register 55.46% in 2030, 62.43% in 2040, and 69.4% in 2050 (Fig. 34c); the industrial water withdrawal will score 38.98% in 2030, 23.8% in 2040, and 16.61% in 2050 (Fig. 34b).

2.18 Slovenia

The evolution of the total renewable water resources per capita, between 1992 and 2019, shows two short expand periods (1993–1997 and 2001–2002) and two decline periods of which one is rather long (1999–2000 and 2003–2019). The highest rises were in 1994 (+0.26%), 1993 (+0.24%), 1995 (+0.21%), 1996 (+0.13%), and 1997 (+0.06%), and the highest drops were in 2008 (−0.54%), 2009 (−0.53%), 2007 (−0.48%), 2010 (−0.47%), and 2011 (−0.39%) as opposed to previous years. The forecast level for 2020–2050 tracks a diminish trend with a relatively constant decrease rate of 0.2% per year, from 15,332.04 m³/inhabit/year in 2019 to 15,008.48 m³/inhabit/year in 2030, 14,714.39 m³/inhabit/year in 2040, and 14,420.3 m³/inhabit/year in 2050 (Fig. 35a).

Two line graphs of evolution and forecast of renewable water and water withdrawal in Slovenia from 1992 and 2050, a and b, a, the line marks the growth period between 1992 and 2004, and follows a decrease in trend. b, the line follows a decrease in trend, the high growth period is marked between 2012 and 2014, the forecast period records the decline. — **Fig. 35**

The total water withdrawal per capita scored an evolution in which each of the three rise periods (2003–2006, 2013, and 2017–2018) was followed by a decline period (2007–2012, 2014–2016, and 2019). The highest increases were in 2013 (+24.19%), 2017 (+4.86%), 2018 (+3.11%), 2003 (+1.01%), and 2004 (+0.74%), and the highest falls were in 2014 (−15.35%), 2015 (−8.66%), 2019 (−1.81%), 2016 (−1.22%), and 2003 (−1.01) in contrast to previous years. The expected value for 2020–2050 follows the decrease trend started with a fixed fall rate of 0.05% per year, such as 451.73 m³/inhabit/year in 2030, 449.53 m³/inhabit/year in 2040, and 447.34 m³/inhabit/year in 2050 (Fig. 35b).

The weight of the total water withdrawal per capita in the total renewable water resources per capita, between 2002 and 2019, registered slightly variations, namely 2.78% (as minimum level in 2016) and 3.63% (in maximum level in 2013).

Particular for Slovenia is that the available data for the agricultural, industrial, and municipal water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal starts in 2002. The agricultural and municipal water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal recorded a similar evolution in 2003–2006, 2008, 2011–2012, 2015–2016, and 2018–2019. The industrial water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal recorded an opposite evolution against the agricultural and municipal water withdrawal in 2002–2006, 2008–2016, and 2018–2019 (Fig. 36).

From 2002 to 2050, three graphs depict the evolution and forecast of agricultural, industrial, and municipal water withdrawals in Slovenia. a, the line follows a decreasing trend, with sharp ups and downs until around 2018, when it begins to decline steadily. b, the line follows a rising trend; the evolution period demonstrates the greatest growth between 2012 and 2040, while the forecast period indicates a steady rise. c, the line is trending downward, with the greatest drop occurring between 2012 and 2014; the forecast period shows a gradual decline. The numbers are approximate. — **Fig. 36**

The highest increases for the agriculture water withdrawal were in 2006 (+171.42%), 2015 (+139.06%), 2011 (+99.82%), 2013 (+25.71%), and 2017 (+12.59%), for the industrial water withdrawal in 2013 (+3.85%), 2005 (+1.55%), 2004 (+1.54%), 2003 (+1.41%), and 2012 (+0.81%), and for the municipal water withdrawal in 2014 (+17.24%), 2015 (+10.16%), 2011 (+1.65%), 2019 (+1.21%), and 2010 (+1.01%) against previous years. The highest diminishes for the agriculture water withdrawal were in 2005 (−50.39%), 2014 (−47.61%), 2010 (−35.77%), 2004 (−28.73%), and 2007 (−27.2%), for the industrial water withdrawal in 2014 (−2.69%), 2015 (−2.29%), 2006 (−0.58%), 2011 (−0.56%), and 2019 (−0.27%) and for the municipal water withdrawal in 2013 (−18.54%), 2005 (−5.34%), 2004 (−5.2%), 2003 (−5.19%), and 2012 (−3.15%) as compared to previous years (Fig. 36).

For 2020–2050 period, the predicted value of the agricultural water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal tracks a decrease trend with values of 0.32% in 2030, 0.23% in 2040, and 0.15% in 2050 (Fig. 36a). The same trend is followed by the municipal water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal for example, 16.89% in 2030, 15.87% in 2040, and 14.85% in 2050 (Fig. 36c). Opposite, the probable value of the industrial water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal scores an increase trend of 82.99% in 2030, 84.19% in 2040, and 85.39% in 2050 (Fig. 36b).

2.19 Spain

The analysis of the total renewable water resources per capita evolution, between 1961 and 2019, emphasizes a general reduction trend with two fall periods (1962–2011and 2017–2019) and one growth five years period (+0.05% in 2012, +0.28% in 2013, +0.33% in 2013, +0.23% in 2014, and +0.08% in 2016), and the highest falls were in 2004 (−1.64%), 2005 (−1.61%), 2003 and 2006 (−1.59%), 2002 (−1.43%), and 2007 (−1.54%) against previous years. The expected value for 2020–2050 follows the same decrease trend, from 2,385.7 m³/inhabit/year in 2019 to 2,150.83 m³/inhabit/year in 2030, 1,942.98 m³/inhabit/year in 2040, and 1,735.13 m³/inhabit/year in 2050 (Fig. 37a).

Two line graphs of the evolution and forecast of renewable water resources and water withdrawal from 1961 and 2050, a and b. a, the line follows a decrease in trend, two fall periods are 1962-2011 and 2017-2019, one growth period is between 2012 and 2016, the forecast period records a steady fall. b, the line follows an increase and decrease in trend, the growth period is between 1975 and 1984, the line decreases thereafter. The values are approximate. — **Fig. 37**

As regards of the evolution of the total water withdrawal per capita, it recorded a decreasing trend as well with both six expand periods (1976–1986, 1998–2000, 2005, 2009, and 2014) and six decline periods (1987–1997, 2001–2004, 2006–2008, 2011–2012, 2013, and 2015–2019). The highest boosts were in 2012 (+4.63%), 2005 (+3.67%), 1985 (+2.02%), 1984 (+2.01%), and 1983 and 2014 (+1.99%), and the highest shrinks were in 2013 (−11.56%), 2006 (−6.36%), 1991 (−4.86%), 1990 (−4.63%), and 1989 (−4.43%) as opposed to previous years. The estimate level for 2020–2050 tracks a decrease trend, from 630.53 m³/inhabit/year in 2019 to 509 m³/inhabit/year in 2030, 398.53 m³/inhabit/year in 2040, and 288.05 m³/inhabit/year in 2050 (Fig. 37b).

In 1975–2019, the weight of the total water withdrawal per capita in the total renewable water resources per capita declined, from 32.36% in 1975 to 26.43% in 2019 (which was lowest value), taking into account that the highest value of 41.12% was recorded in 1986.

The agricultural and municipal water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal registered the same evolution in 1987–1989, 1994–2001, 2002–2003, 2005–2006, 2008–2012, 2014–2016, and 2018. The industrial water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal recorded an opposed evolution compared to the agricultural water withdrawal in 1986–1991, 1998–2002, 2004–2005, 2007–2009, 2011–2014, and 2017–2018. The highest expands for the agriculture water withdrawal were in 2009 (+2.59%), 2012 (+2.76%), 2005 (+2.08%), 2011 (+2%), and 2014 (+1.75%) for the industrial water withdrawal in 2013 (+11.38%), 2008 (+4.59%), 2018 (+4.42%), 2010 (+3.37%), and 2001 (+2.35%), and for the municipal water withdrawal in 1997 (+8.59%), 1995 (+8.17%), 2009 (+7.28%), 2010 (+6.64%), and 2011 (+6.09%) as compared to previous years. The highest diminishes for the agriculture water withdrawal were in 2013 (−5.49%), 2015 (−1.64%), 1998 (−1.44%), 1999 (−1.41%), and 2000 (−1.38%), for the industrial water withdrawal in 1991 (−10.57%), 1990 (−8.79%), 1989 (−7.45%), 1988 (−6.4%), and 2012 (−6.11%) and for the municipal water withdrawal in 1993 (−12.38%), 2015 (−8.27%), 2019 (−8.23%), 2016 (−8.22%), and 2018 (−8.2%) versus previous years (Fig. 38).

Three line graphs of the evolution and forecast of water withdrawal % in agriculture, industry and municipality in Spain, a, b and c. a, the line follows an increase in trend, two peaks are marked around 1995 and 2010. b, the line follows a decrease in trend, a growth period is marked between 1992 and 2003, after that increases and decreases, the forecast period records a steady decline. c, the line follows an increase and decrease in trend, the highest growth is between 1986 and 1989. The values are approximate. — **Fig. 38**

For 2020–2050, the forecast of the agricultural water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal follows an increase trend and the industrial and municipal water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal tracks an opposed trend. Therefore, the agricultural water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal will score 66.21% in 2030, 66.99% in 2040, and 67.77% in 2050 (Fig. 38a), the industrial water withdrawal will record 18.62% in 2030, 17.9% in 2040, and 17.19% in 2050 (Fig. 38b), and the municipal water withdrawal will register 15.2% in 2030, 15.14% in 2040, and 15.7% in 2050 (Fig. 38c).

2.20 Sweden

The evolution of the total renewable water resources per capita, between 1961 and 2019, illustrates a continuous fall trend. The highest drops were in 1967 (−0.85%), 1968 (−0.84%), 2009–2010 (−0.82%), 1966 and 2011 (−0.81%), and 2008 and 2012 (−0.8%) as opposed to previous years. The predicted level for 2020–2050 tracks a diminish trend, from 17,336.93 m³/inhabit/year in 2019 to 15,473.34 m³/inhabit/year in 2030, 13,780.77 m³/inhabit/year in 2040, and 12,190.54 m³/inhabit/year in 2050 (Fig. 39a).

Two line graphs illustrate the evolution and forecast of renewable water resources and water withdrawal between 1961 and 1950. Both graphs' lines indicate a downward trend with minor fluctuations. — **Fig. 39**

As for the total water withdrawal per capita, its evolution recorded a drop trend as well, with two decline periods of which one is rather long (1971–1972 and 1976–2019) and only one short increase period (+0.01% in 1973, +0.03% in 1974, and +0.01% in 1975). The highest falls were in 1985 (−7.3%), 1984 (−6.72%), 1983 (−6.26%), 1982 (−5.9%), and 1981 (−5.64) versus previous years. The expected value for 2020–2050 follows the decrease trend, such as 170.63 m³/inhabit/year in 2030, 111.07 m³/inhabit/year in 2040, and 51.51 m³/inhabit/year in 2050 (Fig. 39b).

Between 1970 and 2019, the weight of the total water withdrawal per capita in the total renewable water resources per capita registered a reduction trend from 2.34% in 1970 to 1.36% (as minimum level) in 2019. The maximum level of 2.38% was scored in 1975.

The agricultural, industrial, and municipal water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal recorded a constant evolution in 1981–1985, 2006–2008, and 2016–2019. The agricultural water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal scored a similar evolution comparted to the municipal water withdrawal in the first half of the period (1971–1975 and 1986–1989), and in contrast to the industrial water withdrawal in the second half of the period (1993–1995, 1998–200, 2002–2004, and 2011–2015). The industrial water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal recorded an opposite evolution against the municipal water withdrawal for long periods, namely 1971–1990 and 1993–2015 (Fig. 40).

Three line graphs of the evolution and forecast of agricultural, industrial and municipal water withdrawals in Sweden, a, b and c. a, the line starts increasing from 3.40 in 1970, gradually increases to 5.60 around 1990 and decreases thereafter. The forecast period records a steady increase. b, the line follows a decrease in trend. c, the line follows an increase in trend with ups and downs. The values are approximate. — **Fig. 40**

The highest increases for the agriculture water withdrawal were in 1986 (+14.22%), 1987 (+12.45%), 1988 (+11.06%), 1989 (+9.96%), and 1991 (+4.3%), for the industrial water withdrawal in 2005 (+1.74%), 2003 and 2004 (+0.67%), 2001 (+0.5%), 2008 and 2009 (+0.32%), and 2010 (+0.31%), and for the municipal water withdrawal in 1986 (+10.39%), 1987 (+9.41%), 1988 (+8.6%), 1989 (+7.91%), and 1995 (+2.69%) against previous years. The highest diminishes for the agriculture water withdrawal were in 2005 (−19.72%), 2001 (−9.55%), 2010 (−3.68%), 2009 (−3.6%), and 2008 (−3.53%), for the industrial water withdrawal in 1989 (−4.8%), 1988 (−4.59%), 1987 (−4.39%), 1986 (−4.21%), and 1997 (−1.81%) and for the municipal water withdrawal in 2004 (−1.01%), 2003 (−1%), 1992 (−0.56%), 1991 (−0.55%), and 1990 (−0.35%) as compared to previous years (Fig. 40).

For 2020–2050 period, the predicted value of the agricultural water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal tracks a growth trend with values of 3.23% in 2030, 3.29% in 2040, and 3.35% in 2050 (Fig. 40a). The same trend is followed by the municipal water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal for example, 42.21% in 2030, 44.03% in 2040, and 45.85% in 2050 (Fig. 40c). Conversely, the probable value of the industrial water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal recorded a decline trend of 55.32% in 2030, 54.13% in 2040, and 52.94% in 2050 (Fig. 40b).

2.21 Results and Discussions

The weight of the total water withdrawal per capita in the total renewable water resources per capita as an indicator describes the country’s abstraction capability from the water resources. Therefore, there is a single state which increased its weight (Cyprus), while few countries maintained it relatively constant (Austria, Ireland, Luxembourg, and Slovenia), and many states recorded a decrease in their weight (Belgium, Bulgaria, Czechia, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, Slovakia, Spain, and Sweden).

By analyzing the same indicator with respect to the average value calculated in each year based on the level recorded by every state, two country groups can be outlined. The first includes countries with a weight lower than the average value, namely Austria, Czechia, Denmark, Finland, France, Ireland, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Sweden. The second group consists of countries with a weight higher than the average value, as follows: Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Germany, Italy, Poland, and Spain.

An additional scale of the top 5 countries can be pointed out based on the same indicator calculated as an average value of each country taking into account all the values of the state’s specific reporting period. Thus, the countries with the highest weight of the total water withdrawal per capita in the total renewable water resources per capita were Belgium (38.34%), Bulgaria (38.24%), Spain (33.14%), Cyprus (27.42%), and Germany (25.72%). Conversely, the countries with the lowest weight were Luxembourg (1.46%), Sweden (1.77%), Slovakia (1.8%), Ireland (2.04%), and Finland (2.67%). Slovenia (2.96%) and Austria (4.56%) were not far from the top 5 low values.

Relying on the scatter of the agricultural water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal values of each country, graph analysis emphasizes two major country clusters. The first cluster consists of states with level higher than 20% and it includes Cyprus, Denmark, Italy, and Spain. The second cluster comprises the states with a level lower than 20%, namely: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czechia, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Sweden.

The same countries are part of the same two country clusters which occur by grouping the states in relation with their value of the agricultural water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal against the average value calculated in each year as regards the level scored by every state. The countries from the first cluster registered a level higher than the year average value and vice versa.

By comparing the average value of each country in line with all the values of the state specific reporting period, the top 5 countries with the highest agricultural water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal were: Cyprus (73.54%), Spain (65.19%), Italy (49.34%), Denmark (36.38%), and Bulgaria (18.56%). By contrast, the top 5 countries with the lowest agricultural water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal were: Slovenia (0.38%), Luxembourg (0.51%), Germany (1.15%), the Netherlands (1.69%), and Czechia (1.71%).

The graph analysis of the countries’ industrial water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal exhibits two country clusters. The first cluster comprises the states with a level higher than 50%, such as Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czechia, Finland, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Poland, Slovenia, and Sweden. The second cluster encloses the states with a level lower than 50%, namely: Cyprus, Denmark, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Slovakia, and Spain.

The distribution of the countries into two groups according to the value of the industrial water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal as compared to the average value computed each year as regards the level recorded by every state shows that the first group which registered a level higher than the annual average comprises the same countries from the first cluster according to the previous sorting. The reverse situation is also valid.

The top 5 countries with the highest average value in line with all the values of the state specific reporting period were Belgium (86.8%), the Netherlands (82.87%), Slovenia (81.71%), Austria (78.01%), and Finland (74.92%), whereas the states that recorded the lowest average value were Cyprus (2.5%), Denmark (10.85%), Luxembourg (13.46%), Spain (19.72%), and Italy (29.59%).

As for the municipal water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal, the graph analysis of its scatter values highlights two country groups and the boundary of 40%. The first group includes the states with a level higher than 40%, such as Denmark, Ireland, Luxembourg, and Slovakia, and the second group includes the states with a level lower than 40%, in particular Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czechia, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, Slovenia, Spain, and Sweden.

Given the value of the municipal water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal in contrast to the average value computed in each year as regards the level recorded by every state, two main groups stand out. The first group consists of countries with a value lower than the average value, i.e. Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus (only until 2012), Finland, France, Germany (only until 2011), Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, Slovenia, and Spain. The second group scored a value higher than the average value, for example Czechia, Denmark, Ireland, Luxembourg, Slovakia, and Sweden.

The top 5 countries with the highest average value based on all the values of the state specific reporting period were Luxembourg (85.47%), Denmark (52.9%), Ireland (52.39%), Slovakia (45.27%), and Czechia (37.84%), and the states with the lowest average value were Belgium (11.86%), Bulgaria (14.24%), Spain (15.1%), Slovenia (17.91%), and France (18%).

3 Conclusions

The analysis of the 27 EU countries’ average total renewable water resources per capita related to the EU’s average total renewable water resources per capita shows that 76.19% of the 27 EU countries registered a level lower than the EU’s average level. Moreover, 68.75% of these countries (such as Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czechia, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Malta, Poland, and Spain) recorded less than half of the EU’s average level (4,058.24 m³/inhabit/year). The 27 EU countries could be grouped into 4 clusters. The first cluster of countries is characterized by a very high level above the EU’s average which is the case of Croatia, Finland, Ireland, Latvia, Slovenia, and Sweden. The second cluster of countries recorded a level which hardly exceeds the EU’s average level (Austria, Estonia, Hungary, Romania, and Slovakia). The third cluster of countries registered a level slightly below the EU’s average and includes Greece, Lithuania, Luxemburg, and Portugal. The fourth cluster of countries scored a very low level, below the EU’s average, such as Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czechia, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Malta, Poland, and Spain.

Concerning the EU countries’ evolution trend of total renewable water resources per capita between 1961 and 2019, 14.82% of EU member states showed an increasing trend throughout the 1961–2019 period, 22.22% of them registered a growth trend at the end of the period, and 62.96% of countries recorded a continuous diminish trend.

There are 9 countries that recorded both the lowest level of the average total renewable water resources per capita in contrast to the EU’s average of total renewable water resources per capita, and a decreasing trend of the total renewable water resources per capita, namely Belgium, Cyprus, Czechia, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Malta, and Spain.

As regards the 19 EU countries that were selected for analysis due to the lowest level of the average total renewable water resources per capita in contrast to the EU’s average of total renewable water resources per capita and/or due to the decreasing trend of the total renewable water resources per capita throughout their specific period of time, each state scored different ranks concerning the indicators.

According to the scatter of the total renewable water resources per capita values, there are two main country groups. The first group comprises the countries that recorded a value higher than 5,000 m³/inhabit/year, which is the case of Ireland, Finland, Slovenia, and Sweden. Conversely, the second group scored a value lower than 5,000 m³/inhabit/year, i.e. Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czechia, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Poland, Slovenia, and Spain.

As for the total water withdrawal per capita, the values are gathered below 400 m³/inhabit/year (for example, Cyprus, Czechia, Denmark, Ireland, Luxembourg, Poland, Slovakia, and Sweden) and beyond 400 m³/inhabit/year (for instance, Bulgaria, Finland, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Slovenia, and Spain). In a particular case are the countries such as Austria, Belgium, and Germany which recorded values higher than 400 m³/inhabit/year in the first three-quarters of the analyzed period and lower than 400 m³/inhabit/year in the last years.

Luxembourg and Slovakia recorded the lowest level of the total water withdrawal per capita of 80.07 m³/inhabit/year and 112.15 m³/inhabit/year, respectively, in 2019. This situation is alarming whereas the forecast level for the next 10 years follows a declining trend. Additionally, these two countries as well as Sweden scored the lowest weight of the total water withdrawal per capita in the total renewable water resources per capita.

The comparison of the average level of the agricultural, industrial, and municipal water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal computed based on the average value of each of the 18 analyzed countries highlights that industrial water withdrawal recorded the highest level of 55.66%, the municipal water withdrawal scored 29.32%, and agricultural water withdrawal registered 16.88%. Thus, on average, more than a half of the water withdrawal is used by the industrial sector. The transition to the green economy by using hydro in a higher proportion as compared to the other renewable energy (solid biofuels, biogases, liquid biofuels, geothermal, solar thermal, solar photovoltaic, tide, wave, ocean, and wind) will increase the focus on the water resources and the industrial water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal will rise beyond the average level above mentioned. The growth of the industrial water withdrawal weight in the total water withdrawal will generate that the agriculture and municipal water withdrawal to diminish their weight, with negative impact on crop production, further on feed and food production. Therefore, the transition from using coal, oil and gas resources to renewable resources must be done both gradually, smoother and through multiple periodic assessments of their economic and social impact.

The forecast level of the total renewable water resources per capita for 2020–2050 underscores that 18 out of 19 analyzed countries record a decrease trend. Bulgaria is the only state that is expected to rise its total renewable water resources per capita. Concerning the total water withdrawal per capita, the reduction trend is identified to all 18 countries (Malta is not included due to the data error).

The expected value of the agricultural water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal for 2020–2050 emphasizes two country clusters. The first cluster shows an expanding trend, such as Czechia, Denmark, Luxembourg, Slovakia, Spain, and Sweden, and the second cluster indicates a diminishing trend, like Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, and Slovenia.

The foreseen level of the industrial water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal for 2020–2050 foregrounds two country groups. The first group consists of Bulgaria, Cyprus, the Netherlands, and Slovenia which display an increase tendency, as opposed to the second group which indicates a fall tendency, for instance Austria, Belgium, Czechia, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Poland, Slovakia, Spain, and Sweden.

The predicted value of the municipal water withdrawal as percent of total water withdrawal for 2020–2050 points out the a decreasing trend in states such as Czechia, Denmark, Finland, the Netherlands, Slovenia, and Spain, and an upward trend in states like Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Poland, Slovakia, and Sweden.

The limitation of the analysis consists in the relative heterogeneity of the source of data. Thus, the values of FAO’s database come from the combination of three sources: (i) estimation either calculated as sum or resulted from official values or from AQUASTAT database estimation; (ii) official values; (iii) imputed (obtained by using methods such as linear interpolation, vertical imputation or last observation carry forward). Furthermore, in the case of Malta, only the total water withdrawal per capita could be analyzed because in the AQUASTAT database the value of the total water withdrawal per capita was higher than the total renewable water resources per capita which is an erroneous issue.

The conclusions are limited to the analyzed countries and cannot be extended to other EU, non-EU or world states. Therefore, future researchers could focus on other countries and new indicators from the water resources and water use categories.

References

Ali, S., Amir, S., Ali, S., Rehman, M. U., Majid, S., & Yatoo, A. M. (2022). Water pollution: Diseases and health impacts. In G. H. Dar, K. R. Hakeem, M. A. Mehmood, & H. Qadri (Eds,), Freshwater pollution and aquatic ecosystems: Environmental impact and sustainable management. Apple Academic Press.
Google Scholar
Bozorg-Haddad, O. (2021). Essential tools for water resources analysis, planning, and management. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4295-8
Brown, C. M., Lund, J. R., Cai, X., Reed, P. M., Zagona, E. A., Ostfeld, A., Hall, J., Characklis, G. W., Yu, W., & Brekke, L. (2015). The future of water resources systems analysis: Toward a scientific framework for sustainable water management. Water Resources Research, 51, 6110–6124. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015WR017114
Article Google Scholar
Brown, E., McBride, A., Hodgson, R., Counsell, C., & Almond, S. (2020). Forecasting the impact of drought on water resources using seasonal rainfall forecasts. Irish National Hydrology Conference, 17–18 November. https://hydrologyireland.ie/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/11-Brown-Forecasting-the-impact-of-drought-on-water-resources-1.pdf
Enbeyle, W., Hamad, A. A., Al-Obeidi, A. S., Abebaw, S., Belay, A., Markos, A., Abate, L., & Derebew, B. (2022). Trend analysis and prediction on water consumption in Southwestern Ethiopia. Journal of Nanomaterials, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/3294954
European Commission. (2021). Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Central Bank, the European Economic and Social Committee, the Committee of the Regions—The EU economy after COVID-19: Implications for economic governance. https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/default/files/economy-finance/economic_governance_review-communication.pdf
European Commission. (2022). A European Green Deal. Timeline. https://ec.europa.eu/info/strategy/priorities-2019-2024/european-green-deal_en#timeline
European Council, Council of the European Union. (2022a). European Green Deal. https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/policies/green-deal/
European Council, Council of the European Union. (2022b). Financing the climate transition. https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/policies/climate-finance/
European Council, Council of the European Union. (2022c). Timeline—European Green Deal and Fit for 55. https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/policies/green-deal/timeline-european-green-deal-and-fit-for-55/
European Union. (2022a). Country profiles. https://european-union.europa.eu/principles-countries-history/country-profiles_en?page=1. Accessed 21 September 2022.
European Union. (2022b). Czechia. https://european-union.europa.eu/principles-countries-history/country-profiles/czechia_en
Eurostat. (2022a). Renewable freshwater resources [env_wat_res]. https://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?dataset=env_wat_res&lang=en. Accessed 19 September 2022.
Eurostat. (2022b). Annual freshwater abstraction by source and sector [env_wat_abs]. https://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?dataset=env_wat_abs&lang=en. Accessed 19 September 2022.
Eurostat. (2022c). Water use by supply category and economical sector [env_wat_cat]. https://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?dataset=env_wat_cat&lang=en. Accessed 19 September 2022.
FAO. (2015). Renewable Water Resources Assessment—2015 AQUASTAT methodology review. https://www.fao.org/3/bc818e/bc818e.pdf. Accessed 25 September 2022.
FAO. (2022). AQUASTAT. https://tableau.apps.fao.org/views/ReviewDashboard-v1/country_dashboard?%3Aembed=y&%3AisGuestRedirectFromVizportal=y. Accessed 20 September 2022.
Frone, D. F., & Frone, S. (2015). The importance of water security for sustainable development in the Romanian agri-food sector. Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia, 6, 674–681. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aaspro.2015.08.120
Article Google Scholar
Guo, L., Zhu, W., Wei, J., & Wang, L. (2022). Water demand forecasting and countermeasures across the Yellow River basin: Analysis from the perspective of water resources carrying capacity. Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies, 42, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2022.101148
Article Google Scholar
Jiao, Y. (2021). Waste to biohydrogen: Potential and feasibility. In Q. Zhang, C. He, J. Ren, M. Goodsite (Eds.), Waste to renewable biohydrogen. Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821659-0.00006-X
Kim, L., Vasile, G. G., Stanescu, B., Dinu, C., & Ene, C. (2016). Distribution of trace metals in surface water and streambed sediments in the vicinity of an abandoned gold mine from Hunedoara County, Romania. Revista de Chimie, 67, 1441–1446. http://bch.ro/pdfRC/KIM%20LIDIA%208%2016.pdf
Kundzewicz, V. N. (2010). Water cycle. In S. E. Jørgensen & B. D. Fath (Eds.), Global ecology: A derivative of encyclopedia of ecology. Elsevier.
Google Scholar
Lebreton, L., van der Zwet, J., Damsteeg, J. W., Slat, B., Andrady, A., & Reisser, J. (2017). River plastic emissions to the world’s oceans. Nature Communications, 8, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms15611
Article Google Scholar
Lundqvist, J., von Brömssen, C., Rosenmai, A. K., Ohlsson, A., Le Godec, T., Ove Jonsson, O., Kreuger, J., & Oskarsson, A. (2019). Assessment of pesticides in surface water samples from Swedish agricultural areas by integrated bioanalysis and chemical analysis. Environmental Sciences Europe, 53, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-019-0241-x
Margat, J., Frenken, K., & Faurès, J.-M. (2005). Key water resources statistics in AQUASTAT. FAO’s Global Information System on Water and Agriculture. IWG-Env, International Work Session on Water Statistics, Vienna, June 20–22. https://www.fao.org/3/I9241EN/i9241en.pdf
Matei, M. (2013). Responsabilitatea socială a corporaţiilor şi instituţiilor şi dezvoltarea durabilă a României. Expert Publishing House.
Google Scholar
McKay, C. P., & Davis, W. L. (2014). Astrobiology. In T. Spohn, D. Breuer & T. Johnson (Eds.), Encyclopedia of the solar system (3rd ed.). Elsevier.
Google Scholar
Ming, L. (2011). The prediction and analysis of water resource carrying capacity in Chongqing Metropolitan, China. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 10, 2233–2239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proenv.2011.09.350
Mirzavand, M., Sadatinejad, S. J., Ghasemieh, H., Imani, R., & Motlagh, M. S. (2014). Prediction of ground water level in arid environment using a non-deterministic model. Journal of Water Resource and Protection, 6, 669–676. https://doi.org/10.4236/jwarp.2014.67064
Article Google Scholar
Mumbi, A. W., Li, F., Bavumiragira, J. P., & Fangninou, F. F. (2022). Forecasting water consumption on transboundary water resources for water resource management using the feed-forward neural network: A case study of the Nile River in Egypt and Kenya. Marine and Freshwater Research, 73, 292–306. https://doi.org/10.1071/MF21118
Article Google Scholar
Niculae, A., Vasile, G. G., Ene, C., & Cruceru, L. V. (2018). The study of groundwater contamination with volatile organic micropollutants (trichloroethylene) in Northern Bucharest. Revista de Chimie, 69, 6–9. https://doi.org/10.37358/RC.18.1.6034
OECD. (2022). OECD data. Environment. https://data.oecd.org/environment.htm#profile-Water. Accessed 19 September 2022.
Panait, M., Voica, M. C., & Radulescu, I. (2019). Approaches regarding environmental Kuznets curve in the European Union from the perspective of sustainable development. Applied Ecology and Environmental Research, 17, 6801–6820. https://doi.org/10.15666/aeer/1703_68016820
Paun, I., Chiriac, F. L., Marin, N. M., Cruceru, L. V., Pascu, L. F., & Lehr, C. B., & Ene, C. (2017). Water quality index, a useful tool for evaluation of Danube River Raw Water. Revista de Chimie, 68, 1732–1739. https://doi.org/10.37358/RC.17.8.5754
Peccerillo, A. (2021). The World Hidden Beneath Us—Structure and composition of the earth. In Air, water, earth, fire. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78013-5_1
Petersen, J. F., Sack, D., & Gabler, R. E. (2021). Physical geography (12th ed.). Cengage.
Google Scholar
Rogers, P. P., Jalal, K. F., & Boyd, J. A. (2012). An introduction to sustainable development. Earthscan.
Book Google Scholar
Sachs, J. D. (2015). The age of sustainable development. Columbia University Press.
Book Google Scholar
Sharma, S. K. (2022). A novel approach on water resource management with multi-criteria optimization and intelligent water demand forecasting in Saudi Arabia. Environmental Research, 208, 112578. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2021.112578
Shiklomanov, I. A. (1993). World fresh water resources. In P. H. Gleick (Ed.), Water in crisis: A guide to the world's fresh water resources. Oxford University Press.
Google Scholar
Stańczyk, J., Kajewska-Szkudlarek, J., Lipiński, P., & Rychlikowski, P. (2022). Improving short-term water demand forecasting using evolutionary algorithms. Scientific Reports, 12, 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-17177-0
The World Bank. (2022). Environment Social and Governance (ESG) data. https://databank.worldbank.org/source/environment-social-and-governance-(esg)-data. Accessed 19 September 2022.
Vogt, G. L. (2007). The hydrosphere: Agent of change. Twenty-First Century Books.
Google Scholar
Voica, M. C., Panait, M., & Radulescu, I. (2015). Green investments–between necessity, fiscal constraints and profit. Procedia Economics and Finance, 22, 72–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2212-5671(15)00228-2
Article Google Scholar
Wang, B., Tian, Y., Li, X., & Li, C. (2021). Analysis and prediction of sustainable utilization of water resources in chengde city based on system dynamics model. Water, 13, 1–23. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13243534
Article Google Scholar
Wu, J., Wang, Z., & Dong, L. (2021). Prediction and analysis of water resources demand in Taiyuan City based on principal component analysis and BP neural network. Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology-Aqua, 70, 1272–1286. https://doi.org/10.2166/aqua.2021.205
Article Google Scholar
Xiaojing, Y., Boyang, S., Sheng, L., Fapeng, L., & Yanping, Q. (2022). A bibliometric analysis and review of water resources carrying capacity using rené descartes’s discourse theory. Frontiers in Earth Science, 10, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2022.970582
Article Google Scholar
Yi, W. (2022). Forecast of agricultural water resources demand based on particle swarm algorithm. Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica, Section B—Soil & Plant Science, 72, 30–42. https://doi.org/10.1080/09064710.2021.1990386

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Faculty of Economic Sciences, Petroleum-Gas University of Ploiesti, Ploiesti, Romania
Adrian Stancu

Authors

Adrian Stancu
View author publications
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Adrian Stancu .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Department of Management, School of Economics and Management, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
Carolina Machado
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
João Paulo Davim

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Stancu, A. (2023). Analysis and Forecasting of Water Resources and Use in the Context of Climate Transition in Selected EU Countries. In: Machado, C., Paulo Davim, J. (eds) Corporate Governance for Climate Transition. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26277-7_4

Download citation

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26277-7_4
Published: 02 April 2023
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-26276-0
Online ISBN: 978-3-031-26277-7
eBook Packages: Business and ManagementBusiness and Management (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics