Abstract
Climate change has undeniable long-term consequences on the environment which in turn seriously undermines the enjoyment of human rights. Africa is projected to be one of the hardest hits by the negative effects of climate change. Conversely, efforts to tackle climate change and to safeguard human rights largely focus on mitigation, giving short shrift to adaptation. This chapter therefore interrogates how human rights principles and norms can be useful in terms of adaptation to climate change in the member states of the African Union. It offers a comprehensive review of the human rights norms, principles, procedures, and institutions that are relevant to climate change adaptation action in Africa. The chapter adopts the doctrinal method to examine how a human rights-based approach to climate change adaptation action could contribute to understanding the protection and enjoyment of internationally guaranteed human rights in the context of responses to the adverse effects of climate change.
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Notes
- 1.
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- 2.
Kashif Abbass, Muhammad Zeeshan Qasim, Huaming Song, Muntasir Murshed, Haider Mahmood, and Ijaz Younis. A review of the global climate change impacts, adaptation, and sustainable mitigation measures. (2022) 29 Environmental Science and Pollution Research 42,539–42,559. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-19718-6.
- 3.
Raman, Iniyan and Goic (n 1 above).
- 4.
As above.
- 5.
Michael Addaney and Patrick Brandful Cobbinah. ‘Climate Change, Urban Planning and Sustainable Development in Africa: The Difference Worth Appreciating.’ In Patick Cobbinah and Michael Addaney (eds) The Geography of Climate Change Adaptation in Urban Africa. (Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04873-0_1.
- 6.
Michael Addaney. ‘Strengthening Africa’s Adaptive Capacity to Climate Change: African Union Law and Implications of China’s Belt and Road Policy.’ In Walter Leal Filho, Gustavo J. Nagy, Marco Borga, Pastor David Chávez Muñoz, Artur Magnuszewski (eds) Climate Change, Hazards and Adaptation Options. Climate Change Management. (Cham: Springer, 2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-37425-9_25.
- 7.
OHCHR, Report on the Relationship between Climate Change and Human Rights, A/HRC/ 10/61 (2009), 16.
- 8.
OHCHR, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Issue of Human Rights Obligations Relating to the Enjoyment of a Safe, Clean, Healthy and Sustainable Environment, A/HRC/31/52 (2016), at 65–68.
- 9.
Annalisa Savaresi and Joanne Scott, ‘Implementing the Paris Agreement: Lessons from the Global Human Rights Regime’ (2019) 9 Climate Law 159–164, at 2.
- 10.
Michael Burger and Jessica Wentz ‘Climate change and human rights’ in James R May and Erin Daly (eds) Human Rights and the Environment: Legality, Indivisibility, Dignity and Geography (Edward Elgar Publishing 2019) 198.
- 11.
Paris Agreement, Preamble.
- 12.
n 2 above, at 2.
- 13.
See Annalisa Savaresi, ‘The Paris Agreement: A New Beginning?’ (2016) 34 Journal of Energy and Natural Resources Law 16; Margaretha Wewerinke, State Responsibility, Climate Change and Human Rights under International Law (Hart Publishing, 2019).
- 14.
Dinah Shelton, ‘Human Rights, Environmental Rights and the Right to Environment’ (1991) 28 Stanford Journal of International Law 103; Alan E. Boyle and Michael R. Anderson, Human Rights Approaches to Environmental Protection (Clarendon Press 1996) Sumudu Atapattu, ‘Right to Healthy Life or the Right to Die Polluted? The Emergence of a Human Rights to a Healthy Environment under International Law (2002–2003) 16 Tulane Environmental Law Journal 65; Keri Woods, Human Rights and Environmental Sustainability (Edward Elgar Publishing 2010).
- 15.
See Ben Boer and Rosemary Mwanza ‘The Converging Regimes of Human Rights and Environmental Protection in International Law’ (2020) No. 20/09 The University of Sydney Law School Legal Studies Research Chapter Series 1.
- 16.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 2021: Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. In Press.
- 17.
IPCC Fifth Assessment Working Group II Report (2014).
- 18.
See Progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals – Report of the Secretary-General, 75th session, UN Doc. E/2016/75 (27 July 2016). Climate-related considerations have been integrated into other SDGs.
- 19.
Daniel M. Pallangyo and Werner Scholtz, ‘Africa and climate change: Legal perspectives from the AU’ in Werner Scholtz and Jonathan Verschuuren (eds) Regional Environmental Law: Transregional Comparative Lessons in Pursuit of Sustainable Development (Edward Elgar Publishing 2015) 51.
- 20.
Ibid. The limited adaptive capacity of AU member states implies that on their own these states are unable to ensure effective adaptation to the negative effects of a changing climate. Thus, international and regional support and assistance for climate change adaptation is inevitable.
- 21.
Ibid, at 51.
- 22.
Ibid.
- 23.
Nelson Chanza, ‘Limits to Climate Change Adaptation in Zimbabwe: Insights, Experiences and Lessons’ in Walter Leal Filho and Johanna Nalau (Eds) Limits to Climate Change Adaptation. (Springer 2018).
- 24.
Albert Mumma ‘The Poverty of Africa’s position at the climate change negotiations’ (2000–2002) 19 UCLA Journal of Environmental Law and Policy 198.
- 25.
Kevin Gray and Joyeeta Gupta ‘The United Nations climate change regime and Africa’ in Kevin R. Gray and Beatrice Chaytor (eds) International environmental law and policy in Africa (Kluwer Academic Publishers) 60–81.
- 26.
AU Constitutive Act, Art 3(d).
- 27.
Ibid, Art 3(i).
- 28.
Ibid, Art 3(e).
- 29.
Ibid, Art 3(j).
- 30.
Ibid, 65, 75.
- 31.
COP21 Paris December 2015.
- 32.
See, Africa Adaptation Initiative (AAI) ‘About), (2017) https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/kulthoum_presentation-_scf_forum.pdf (accessed 10 March 2022).
- 33.
Ibid.
- 34.
The 25th AU Summit was held in Johannesburg in June 2015.
- 35.
Ibid.
- 36.
Ibid.
- 37.
Jonathan Pickering, Carola Betzold and Jakob Skovgaard, ‘Managing Fragmentation and Complexity in the Emerging System of International Climate Finance’ (2017) 17 International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics 1–16.
- 38.
The Constitutive Act establishing the AU to replace the Organisation of African Unity (OAU, 1963–1999) was adopted on 11 July 2000 in Lomé, Togo and entered into in 2002.
- 39.
Michael Spicer, ‘Globalization, regional integration, economic growth and democratic consolidation’ in Jorge Braga de Macedo and Omar Kabbaj (eds) Regional Integration in Africa (OECD 2002) 163.
- 40.
Ibid, Art 4(i-o).
- 41.
See, generally, Kunle Amuwo, ‘Globalization, NEPAD and the Governance Question in Africa’ (2002) 6 African Studies Quarterly 65.
- 42.
AMCEN, ‘AMCEN Climate Change Communication Strategy 2010–2012: Recognizing the Urgency for communicating climate change’, 26 August 2010, AMCEN/SS/IV/INF/2.
- 43.
Ibid, para 6 of the preamble.
- 44.
1968 African Convention, preamble, para 6.
- 45.
Ibid, Arts 2 and 3.
- 46.
See, also, the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) action plan of the new partnership for Africa's development 2003 para 23, www.unep.org/oroa/Amcen/dcs/publications/ActionNepad.pdf.
- 47.
Revised African Convention, preamble.
- 48.
Revised African Convention) was adopted during the Second AU Summit of Heads of State and Government in Maputo, Mozambique, on 11 July 2003 to replace the 1968 Convention.
- 49.
Revised African Convention, Art II.
- 50.
Ibid, Art V.
- 51.
Ibid, Art XXVI (1) and (5).
- 52.
Ulrich Beyerlin and Vanessa Holzer ‘Perspectives on nature conservation in Africa: the 2003 Maputo Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources’ (2008) 1 Journal of African and International Law 1, 13.
- 53.
Kampala Convention was adopted in 2009 in Kampala, Uganda.
- 54.
Ibid, preamble.
- 55.
Ibid, Art 4(4)(f).
- 56.
Ibid, Arts 3 and 4.
- 57.
AU Constitutive Act, Art 4(h).
- 58.
Werner Scholtz ‘Environmental Harmonization in the SADC Region: An Acute Case of Asymmetry’ in Karl M. Meessen, Marc Bungenberg and Adelheid Puttler (eds) Economic law as an economic good (Economic Law Publishers 2009) 385. The 1980 Lagos Plan of Action for the Development of Africa and the Abuja Treaty proposed the formation of RECs as the foundation for wider African integration.
- 59.
These includes the East African Community (EAC), the Southern African Development Community (SADC) and the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS).
- 60.
Ibid, Arts 3 and 4.
- 61.
The role of regional human rights mechanisms, European Parliament, Directorate General for External Policies – Policy Department, doc EXPO/DROI/2009, 19–20.
- 62.
Ibid. For example ASEAN Human Rights Declaration, 21st ASEAN Summit in Phnom Penh, 18 November 2012, https://asean.org/asean-human-rights-declaration/ (accessed 28 March 2020).
- 63.
Helene Combrinck and Tobias Pieter Van Reenen ‘The UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities in Africa: progress after 5 years’ (2011) 8 SUR International Journal on Human Rights 133–165 at 137.
- 64.
Katja Frieler et al., ‘High Noon for 2 degrees Celsius’ (2009) Air Pollution & Climate Secretariat Sweden Environmental Fact Sheet 21, 2, available at www.airclim.org/acidnews/2009/AN3-09/highnoon-2°c.
- 65.
See, Rosemary Rayfuse ‘International Law and Disappearing States: Utilising Maritime Entitlements to Overcome the Statehood Dilemma’ (2010) Chapter 52 UNSWLRS 1.
- 66.
The Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States (adopted 26 December 1933, entered into force 26 December 1934) 165 LNTS 19, Art 1, lists the following qualifications as prerequisite for statehood: (a) a permanent population; (b) a defined territory; (c) a government; (d) the capacity to enter into relations with other States.
- 67.
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (adopted 10 December 1982, entered into force 16 November 1994) 1833 UNTS 3, Arts 55–58. See also Lilian Yamamoto and Miguel Esteban, ‘Atoll Island States and Climate Change: Sovereignty Implications’, UNU-IAS Working Chapter 166, October 2011, available at http://i.unu.edu/media/unu.edu/publication/20972/atoll-island-states-and-climatechange_unu-ias-working-chapter-166.pdf.
- 68.
Lilian Yamamoto and Miguel Esteban Atoll Island States and International Law Climate Change Displacement and Sovereignty (Springer-Verlag 2014) 41.
- 69.
Advisory Opinion on the Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) Notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 [1970] ICJ Reports 1971, esp 31. See also Thomas M Franck, ‘The Emerging Right to Democratic Governance’ (1992) 86 American Journal of International Law 46.
- 70.
Ian Brownlie, Principles of Public International Law, 5th edn (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1998) 513; Antonio Cassese, International Law in a Divided World (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1986) 136; Alexandre Kiss, ‘The Peoples’ Right to Self-determination’ (1986) 7 Human Rights Law Journal 174.
- 71.
Charter of the United Nations (adopted 26 June 1945, entered into force 24 October 1945) 1 UNTS XVI, Arts 1(2), 55 and 73.
- 72.
For example, Declaration on the Principles of International Law concerning Friendly Relations and Cooperation among States in accordance with the Charter of United Nations, GA Res A/Res/2625 (XXV), 24 October 1970, 25 UNGA OR Supp (No. 28), Annex 121, UN Doc A/5217; Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples, 14 December 1960, GA Res A/Res/1514 (XV).
- 73.
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (adopted 16 December 1966, entered into force 23 March 1976) 999 UNTS 171 (ICCPR) Art 1(1), (3).
- 74.
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (adopted 16 December 1966, entered into force 3 January 1976) 993 UNTS 3 (ICESCR) Art 1(1), (3).
- 75.
African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (adopted 27 June 1981, entered into force 21 October 1986) (1982) 21 ILM 58 (ACHPR), Arts 20 and 21.
- 76.
UNHRC, ‘Concluding Comments on Azerbaijan’ (1994) UN Doc CCPR/C/79/Add. 38, para 6.
- 77.
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Human Development Report 2019: Beyond income, beyond averages, beyond today: Inequalities in human development in the twenty-first century (UNDP 2019) 179 http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2019.pdf (accessed 28 March 2020).
- 78.
UNHRC, General Comment No. 12 (n 26) para 5.
- 79.
Ibid para 6.
- 80.
Report of the High Commissioner, para 26.
- 81.
United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report 2019: Beyond income, beyond averages, beyond today: Inequalities in human development in the twenty-first century (UNDP 2019) 195 http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2019.pdf (accessed 28 March 2020).
- 82.
See Debra Roberts et al., Summary for Policymakers of IPCC Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 C (IPCC 2018) https://www.ipcc.ch/2018/10/08/summary-for-policymakers-of-ipcc-special-report-on-global-warming-of-1-5c-approved-by-governments/ (accessed 28 March 2020).
- 83.
Ibid p. 452.
- 84.
UNDP (n 83) 195.
- 85.
Report of the High Commissioner, para 29.
- 86.
International Labour Organization (ILO), Digital Labour Platforms and the Future of Work: Towards Decent Work in the Online World (International Labour Office 2018).
- 87.
Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Right of Everyone to Enjoyment of the Highest Attainable Standard of Physical and Mental Health, A/62/214 (8 August 2007), para 101.
- 88.
CESCR Committee, General Comment No. 12 paras 10–13.
- 89.
Food availability refers to options of obtaining food, such as (a) through means of subsistence farming and other direct use of natural resources, or (b) by means of a functioning market system. Food accessibility entails economic and physical accessibility. Economic accessibility refers to the acquisition pattern through which food is procured, such as land in the case of subsistence farming, and physical accessibility requires that food is within the reach of everyone. Food acceptability and safety refer to the cultural and biochemical edibility of food.
- 90.
Ibid.
- 91.
Christoph Bals, Sven Harmeling, Michael Windfuhr Climate change, food security and the right to adequate food (German Watch 2008) 84–99.
- 92.
UNDP (n 83) 181.
- 93.
Ibid.
- 94.
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and World Health Organization (WHO), Progress on Household Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene 2000-2017: Special Focus on Inequalities (UNICEF/WHO 2019).
- 95.
Ibid.
- 96.
UNDP (n 83) 182.
- 97.
Surminski, S., L. M. Bouwer and J. Linnerooth-Bayer ‘How Insurance can Support Climate Resilience’ (2016) 6 Nature Climate Change 333–334.
- 98.
General Comment No. 6: The right to life (Article 6), UN Doc HRI/GEN/1/Rev 6 (30 April 1982) 127, para 1; General Comment No. 14: Nuclear Weapons and the Right to Life (Article 6), UN Doc HRI/ GEN/1/Rev1 (9 November 1984) 18, para 1.
- 99.
UNHRC, General Comment No 6 (n 55) para 1.
- 100.
UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, ‘Cyclones Idai and Kenneth’, https://www.unocha.org/southern-and-eastern-africa-rosea/cyclones-idai-and-kenneth.
- 101.
Roy, J. et al. (n 86).
- 102.
OHCHR Report on Climate Change and Human Rights (n 28) 9.
- 103.
UNHRC, General Comment No 6 (n 101) paras 1.
- 104.
General Comment No. 3 on the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights: The Right to Life (Article 4), adopted during the 57th Ordinary Session of the ACHPR (4–18 November 2015) para 3. Numerous resolutions adopted by the UN Human Rights Council confirm that protection against the potentially deadly impact of climate change falls within the scope of the right to life.
- 105.
UNHRC, General Comment No 6, paras 3–5.
- 106.
SERAC and Another v Nigeria, para 46.
- 107.
Ibid para 67. See also Oneryildiz v Turkey App no 48939/99 (ECtHR GC, 30 November 2004) 115.
- 108.
Annakkarage Suranjini Sadamali Pathmini Peiris v Sri Lanka (2011) UNHRC Communication No 1862/2009, UN Doc CCPR/C/103/D/1862, para 7.2.
- 109.
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Office of the U.N. High Commissioner for Human Rights on the Relationship Between Climate Change and Human Rights, 20-41, U.N. Doc A/HRC/10/61 (15 January 2009).
- 110.
IPCC, Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation (2012).
- 111.
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), ‘The magnitude of the Problem’, http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5318e/x5318e02.htm (accessed 10 August 2019).
- 112.
See Kanta Kumari Rigaud and others, Groundswell: Preparing for Internal Climate Migration (World Bank 2018). Already, the FAO has revealed that about 26.4 million people were displaced annually in Africa due to climate-related disasters between 2008 and 2015..
- 113.
See, UNHCR res. 10/4 (25 March 2009), OHCHR, Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the Relationship Between Climate Change and Human Rights (A/HRC/10/61) (15 January 2009).
- 114.
See, generally, B Mayer and F Crépeau, (eds) Research Handbook on Climate Change, Migration and the Law (2017); Benoit Mayer, The Concept of Climate Migration (2016); Walter Kälin and Nina Schrepfer, Protecting People Crossing Borders in the Context of Climate Change: Normative Gaps and Possible Approaches (UNHCR 2012).
- 115.
See, Convention relating to the Status of Refugees, 28 July 1951, 189 UNTS 150, art 1(A)(2); Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees, 31 January 1967, 606 UNTS 267.
- 116.
See, James C. Hathaway, ‘A reconsideration of the underlying premise of refugee law’ (1990) 31 Harvard International Law Journal 129, at 132–133.
- 117.
See, Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement (11 February 1998), doc. E/CN.4/1998/53/Add.2; Erin Mooney, ‘The concept of internal displacement and the case of internally displaced persons as a category of concern’ (2005) 24(3) Refugee Survey Quarterly 9.
- 118.
See, Alexander Betts, Survival Migration: Failed Governance and the Crises of Displacement (Cornell University Press 2013).
- 119.
Benoit Mayer, The International Law on Climate Change (Cambridge University Press 2018) 173.
- 120.
See, Benoit Mayer, The Concept of Climate Migration: Advocacy and its Prospects (Edward Elgar Publishing 2016).
- 121.
See generally UN Resolution 72/277 ‘Towards a Global Pact for the Environment’, adopted by the General Assembly 10 May 2018, A/73/419; Ben Boer ‘Environmental principles and the right to a quality environment’ in Michael Faure (ed) Elgar Encyclopedia of environmental law: volume VI (Edward Elgar Publishing 2018).
- 122.
Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, OJ C 364/1, 18 December 2000, Art 37; Additional Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights in the Area of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 28 ILM 156 (1989), Art 11.
- 123.
Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa.
- 124.
The African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (ACRWC).
- 125.
Social and Economic Rights Action Centre (SERAC) and the Centre for Economic and Social Rights v Nigeria (2001) AHRLR 60 (ACHPR 2001) (SERAC).
- 126.
Ibid, para 51.
- 127.
Ibid, para 52.
- 128.
Ibid, para 53.
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Addaney, M. (2023). Climate Change and the Realization of Human Rights in Africa. In: Onuora-Oguno, A. (eds) Promoting Efficiency in Jurisprudence and Constitutional Development in Africa. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-13814-0_12
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