Abstract
The Republic of France is fully committed to the implementation of the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and its Protocol on access and benefit sharing (ABS) both as a sovereign country and as a member of the European Union (EU). In connection with France’s status as an EU member State, the country is legally bound by Regulation (EU) 511/2014 on ABS which implements user measures of NP in the EU. In 1994 and 2016 respectively, France became party to the CBD and the Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity. France considers itself as a megadiverse country, based on its unique position in Europe and the rich biodiversity found in its overseas territories. However, as a technologically advanced country, France is equally a major user of genetic resources. This chapter explores how France domesticates the NP on ABS from the perspectives of both a supplier and a user of genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge. It examines the extent to which the ABS regulatory infrastructure of France that has been constructed after the entry into force of the NP in 2014, complies with the NP. The chapter demonstrates that the post NP ABS regulatory framework of France is de jure compliant with the letter of the NP. However, questions may be asked about the de facto compliance, which is, whether the spirit of the NP is properly embedded in the ABS regulatory framework of France. In their current versions, the ABS regulatory instruments of France do not appear to be highly reassuring to other supplier countries of GR that they are capable to ensure that all the users of illegally and/or inappropriately accessed resources are seriously scrutinized.
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Notes
- 1.
Megadiverse countries are referred to as countries, which harbor the majority of the earth’s species with a large number of endemic species in them. Currently, there are 17 scientifically recognized megadiverse countries, and France (metropolitan or any of its overseas territories) is not in the list. https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/ecologically-megadiverse-countries-of-the-world.html (accessed 28 May 2019).
- 2.
Ministère de l’Ecologie, du Développement durable et de l’Energie (2014).
- 3.
Ibid.
- 4.
Ibid.
- 5.
Ibid.
- 6.
Ibid.
- 7.
UICN France and MNHN (2014).
- 8.
Ministère de l’Ecologie, du Développement durable des Transports et du Logement (2011).
- 9.
Convention on Biological Diversity (2011).
- 10.
Ibid, above at Sect. 8.
- 11.
In the remainder of the chapter, this will be referred to as the 2016 ABS Law.
- 12.
In the remainder of the chapter, this will be referred to as the 2017 ABS Decree.
- 13.
In the remainder of the chapter, this will be referred to as the 2017 ABS regulations.
- 14.
Based on the definition of Utilization of article 2 of the NP.
- 15.
Principes généraux, Art. L110-1 Code de l’Environnement.
- 16.
Art. L 412-3 of the 2016 France ABS Law.
- 17.
Ibid.
- 18.
Art. L 412-5 –I of the 2016 France ABS Law.
- 19.
Art. L. 412-4 of the Law on ‘definitions’, provides an elaborate definition of utilization as: research and development activities on the genetic or biochemical composition of all or part of animals, plants, micro-organisms or other biological material containing units of heredity, in particular through the application of biotechnology, as well as the valorization of these genetic resources, their applications and commercialization.
- 20.
Art. L 412-17-III of the 2016 France ABS law.
- 21.
Art. L. 412-6-2 of the 2016 France ABS Law.
- 22.
Art. L412-17-III of the 2016 France ABS law.
- 23.
Arts. R.412-13 and R.412-18 of the 2017 ABS Decree stipulate that ‘any’ person wishing to access the genetic resources.
- 24.
Art. L 412-5-II of the 2016 ABS Law.
- 25.
Art. L 412-5-II-3 of the 2016 ABS Law.
- 26.
Art. L 412-5-III of the 2016 ABS Law.
- 27.
Art. L 412-6 of 2016 France ABS law.
- 28.
Art. L 412-7 to L 412-9 of the 2016 ABS Law.
- 29.
Chiarolla (2015), pp. 77–114.
- 30.
Art. L 412-15 of the 2016 ABS law of France. The territories concerned are the regional councils of Guadeloupe and Reunion; the assemblies of French Guyana and Martinique and the overseas departments of Mayotte.
- 31.
Aubertie (2017).
- 32.
Ibid, p. 105.
- 33.
Ibid.
- 34.
Ibid.
- 35.
Arts. R.412-13, R.412-18, R.412-28 of the 2017 ABS Implementing decree of France. It must be stressed that in France, the ministry in charge of the Environment is Le Ministere de la Transition Ecologique et Solidaire.
- 36.
Art. 13.2 of the Nagoya Protocol.
- 37.
Art. L.412-8 I of the 2016 ABS law.
- 38.
Ibid.
- 39.
Art. L.412-4-5 of the 2016 ABS law defines aTK as: knowledge, innovations and practices relating to the genetic or biochemical properties of the resources, its use or its characteristic, which are held in an ancient and continuous manner by one or more communities of inhabitants, as well as the evolutions of this knowledge and practices when they emanate from these communities of inhabitants. The term ‘moral authority’ has not been defined in the ABS law or the decree. The only thing said is that for such identification, the business name, legal status, address etc. of the moral authority should be provided.
- 40.
Art. L.412-9 and L. 412-10.
- 41.
Art. L. 412-15 of the 2016 ABS Law.
- 42.
Art. D. 412-39-I of the 2017 ABS Decree.
- 43.
Art. D. 412-39-II of the 2017 ABS Decree.
- 44.
Art. L. 412-18-I-2 of the 2016 ABS law.
- 45.
Art. D. 412-41 of the 2017 ABS Decree.
- 46.
Arts R.412-12 of the 2017 ABS decree. The criteria the applicant must fulfil in the submission / application are detailed in Article R.412-13 of the 2017 ABS Decree.
- 47.
Art. L. 412-7 III of the 2016 ABS Law.
- 48.
Art. R. 412-18 of the 2017 ABS Decree.
- 49.
Art. R. 412-12-3 of the 2017 Decree.
- 50.
Art. R. 412-20 of the 2017 ABS Decree. The standard contract was adopted by the 2017 ABS regulations establishing the standard contract for the sharing of benefits arising from the use of genetic resources.
- 51.
Art. R 412-19 of the 2017 ABS Decree.
- 52.
Art. R. 412-28 of the 2017 ABS Decree.
- 53.
Art. R. 412-33 of the 2017 ABS Decree.
- 54.
Arts R. 412-15-I-1; R. 412-24-I-1 and R. 412-37 of the 2017 ABS Decree.
- 55.
Art. 412-12-3 of the 2017 ABS Decree- and possible interpretation in the Sect. 2.2 above on how the decree might be viewed to have approached the distinction between commercial and non-commercial use.
- 56.
Art. L 412-9-I of the 2016 ABS law and Art. R 412-33 of the 2017 ABS Decree.
- 57.
Art. R. 412-29 to R. 412-33 of the 2017 ABS Decree.
- 58.
Art. R. 412-33 of the 2017 ABS Decree.
- 59.
Ibid.
- 60.
In France CHM, 38 IRCC were published and all mentioning MAT in non-commercial utilization of GR by largely academic and research institutions: https://absch.cbd.int/countries/FR. Accessed 29 May 2019.
- 61.
Art. R 412-13 of the 2017 ABS Decree.
- 62.
Art. R 412-14 of the 2017 ABS Decree.
- 63.
Art. R 412-22-II of the 2017 ABS Decree.
- 64.
Ibid.
- 65.
Art. R.412-25 of the 2017 ABS Decree.
- 66.
Art. R. 412-28 of the 2017 ABS decree. For example, the application form for the permit to utilize aTK requires additional information such as the detailed protocol for access to associated traditional knowledge, the description of the aTK and identification of the community or communities of inhabitants that are concerned and if access to the aTK requires access to the GR associated to it, then information on the origins of the samples of the GR will have to be specified.
- 67.
Arts R 412-33 and R.412-34 of the 2017 ABS Decree. Some of these additional prescriptions including the fixation of the validity of the permit; the guarantees that benefits will be shared fairly and equitably, that activities will not deplete GR but will rather contribute to their conservation and sustainable use and that benefits will be invested in project that would promote education, conservation and sustainability.
- 68.
Art. L. 412-17-III of the 2016 ABS law.
- 69.
The model contract is promulgated as the September 2017 ABS Implementing Regulation.
- 70.
Art. 4 of each of the model MAT for the utilization of GR and utilization of aTK.
- 71.
Art. L 412-8-IV- 2 of the 2016 ABS law.
- 72.
Art. L 412-8-IV-3 of the 2016 ABS law.
- 73.
Art. 3 of each of the model contracts.
- 74.
Definitions Art. L-412-4-3 of the 2016 ABS.
- 75.
Parties must fulfil three core obligations under the Nagoya Protocol. These are (1) obligations pertaining to access enshrined in Article 6, 7 and 12 NP; (2) obligations pertaining to fair and equitable sharing of benefits enshrined in Article 5 of the NP and obligations pertaining to compliance as well as monitoring and surveillance of utilization enshrined in Articles 15; 16; 17 and 18 of Nagoya Protocol. For a detailed discussion see Winter in this volume.
- 76.
Art. 4 of the 2014 EU ABS Regulation deals with the due diligence obligation of users of genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge.
- 77.
Art. D. 412-39-I-1 of the 2017 ABS Decree.
- 78.
Art. D. 412-39-II-1 of the 2017 ABS Decree.
- 79.
Art. D. 412-41 of the 2017 ABS Decree.
- 80.
Art. 4.3.a of the 2014 EU ABS Regulation.
- 81.
Art. 4.3.b of the 2014 EU ABS Regulation. Such detailed information includes but are not limited to date and place of access, description of genetic resources and aTK; presence of absence of rights and obligations relating to access and benefit sharing etc.
- 82.
Art. L. 412-18-II-1of the 2016 ABS law.
- 83.
Art. L.412-18-II-2 of the 2016 ABS law. Products marketed without the requirement of a market approval are not addressed, which could be a loophole.
- 84.
Ibid.
- 85.
Art. L.415-3-1 of the 2016 ABS law.
- 86.
Art. L.412.18-II-1 of the 2016 ABS law.
- 87.
Art. 38 of the 2016 ABS Law.
- 88.
Art. R. 412-13 and Article R.412-18 respectively on the declarative and authorization schemes states that, anybody (toute personne) wishing to access GR…There is no distinction between applications from nationals and foreigners.
- 89.
Compliance with Articles 12 and 13 of the NP is reflected in the in the ABS regulatory framework. The functions and the roles of the CNA, the communities of inhabitants / or their representatives in the PIC process and MAT negotiations are clearly enunciated.
- 90.
Table 1 below on linkages between domestic ABS provisions with articles 6.3 (c), (e), (f), (g), 12 of the NP.
- 91.
Art. 7 of the standard aTK contract and article 7 of the standard contract for access to GR.
- 92.
Art. 6 of each of the model contracts.
- 93.
Art. 5 Model ABS contract for access to GR annexed to the September 2017 ABS regulations.
- 94.
Art. 5 Model ABS contract for access to TK annexed to the 2017 ABS Decree.
- 95.
There is compliance with NP article 18.1 (a) and (b).
- 96.
EU Commission (2016).
- 97.
Ibid, p. 14.
References
Publications
Aubertie S (2017) L’APA Pas à Pas: Mise en Œuvre du Protocole de Nagoya et des Règlementations d’Accès aux Ressources Génétiques et aux Connaissances Traditionnelles associées et de Partage des Avantages issues de leur Utilisation (APA) dans le cadre des activités de recherche et de Développement. Fondation pour la Recherche sur la Biodiversité (FRB), Paris, France
Chiarolla C (2015) Commentary on ABS provisions of the draft biodiversity law of France. In: Coolseat B et al (eds) Implementing the Nagoya protocol: comparing access and benefit sharing regimes in Europe. Brill/Martinus Nijhoff, Leiden, pp 77–114
Other Documents and Websites
CBD and Nagoya Protocol Clearing House Mechanism France., https://absch.cbd.int/countries/FR (accessed 29 June 2019)
Convention on Biological Diversity (2011) Strategic plan for biodiversity 2011–2020, including Aichi Biodiversity Targets, https://www.cbd.int/sp/ (accessed 28 May 2019)
Ministère de l’Ecologie, du Développement durable des Transports et du Logement (2011) La Stratégie Nationale pour la Biodiversité 2011–2020, Paris France
Ministère de l’Ecologie, du Développement durable et de l’Energie (2014) Le cinquième Rapport National de la France a la Convention sur la Diversité Biologique, Paris, France
UICN France & MNHN (2014). La Liste rouge des espèces menacées en France 2008–2013, Paris, France
World Megadiverse Countries., https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/ecologically-megadiverse-countries-of-the-world.html (accessed 28 May 2019)
Legal Texts
France
Loi No2016-1087 du 08 Aout 2016 pour la Reconquête de la Biodiversité, de la Nature et des Paysages, Titre V: Accès aux ressources Génétiques et Partage Juste et Equitable des Avantages, codifié aux articles L412-3 à L412-20 du Code de l’environnement
Décret No 2017-848 du 09 Mai 2017 Relatif à l’Accès aux Ressources Génétiques et aux connaissances traditionnelles associées au partage des avantages découlant de leur utilisation. This decree provides for the designation of the relevant Competent National Authorities (CNA) responsible for the implementation of the monitoring of utilization and compliance provision of the 2014 EU ABS Regulation and for the registration of collections. It also includes a model contract for benefit sharing from the utilization of traditional knowledge associated with genetic resources
Arrêté du 13 septembre 2017 fixant le contrat type de partage des avantages découlant de l'utilisation de ressources génétiques prélevées sur le territoire national, mentionné à l'article R. 412-20 du code de l'environnement
European Union
Regulation (EU) 511/2014 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 April 2014 on compliance measures for users from the Nagoya Protocol on access to genetic resources and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from their utilization in the union
Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2015/1866 of 13 October 2015 laying down detailed rules for the implementation of Regulation (EU) No 511/2014 of the European Parliament and of the Council about the register of collections, monitoring user compliance and best practices
EU Commission (2016) Guidance document on the scope of application and core obligations of Regulation (EU) No 511/2014 of the European Parliament and of the Council on the compliance measures for users from the Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization in the Union. Official Journal of the European Union, C 313/01
Acknowledgments
The author expresses sincere gratitude to all the experts who agreed to be interviewed in this case study. My heartfelt thanks to Dr. Evanson Chege Kamau, for kindly inviting me to be part of the team he put together for this research project and for reviewing the draft materials. I would also like to thank the other members of the team, whose comments shared during all the research meetings held in Bremen between 2017 and 2019, were very instrumental in fine tuning my case studies. I want to thank Dr. Kamau assistants at Bremen, who were always ready to help in any way, especially in relation to all the meetings that were held. I want to thank my family, my wife and children for putting up with me through all related travel.
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Mahop, M.T. (2022). The Post Nagoya Protocol ABS Regime in France: Exploring the Extent to Which It Upholds the Obligations of the Protocol. In: Chege Kamau, E. (eds) Global Transformations in the Use of Biodiversity for Research and Development. Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice, vol 95. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88711-7_16
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