Abstract
The nineteenth century was the century of industrialization, modernization, demographic explosion, new means of transportation and communication as well as of great transformations in other spheres. It was the century of grandiose changes that the world had never seen before: growing literacy, rapid urbanization, changes in political institutions, the rise of national identity, the rise of culture, fantastic discoveries in science, and a powerful change of lifestyles. Such tremendous transformations naturally led to drastic social changes. It is not surprising then that the nineteenth century also became the age of revolutions. Leonid Grinin in this chapter shows the main changes occurring in the nineteenth century and the way they influenced revolutionary movements. Powerful waves of revolutions were observed in the nineteenth century. Grinin discusses the theoretical issues connected with the notion of ‘a wave of revolution’ and how to distinguish it. In this chapter he formulates the criteria and conditions for a revolutionary wave and then describes three such waves in Europe (and another wave of revolutions in Spanish Latin America which was generated by the first Spanish revolution of 1808–1812). The first wave of European revolutions can be dated to the 1820s. The second wave of revolutions occurred in 1830–1831. The subsequent—third—overwhelming wave of revolutions started in 1848. It is very characteristic that in the second half of the nineteenth century we do not observe revolutionary waves (they will come to the fore again only in the twentieth century). Grinin explains this fact as well. In the chapter he also characterizes revolutions which were beyond the waves and presents characteristics of various types of revolutions.
This chapter is an output of a research project implemented as part of the Basic Research Program at HSE University in 2022 with support by the Russian Science Foundation (Project No. 18-18-00254).
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Notes
- 1.
See Chapter “Introduction. Changing yet Persistent: Revolutions and Revolutionary Events” (Goldstone et al., 2022b, in this book).
- 2.
This can be explained by noting that there are no data of revolutions in Italy and Central Europe (Bohemia, Austria, and Germany) in Tilly’s tables. For this reason, among the revolutions of the revolutionary wave of 1848, Beck's list (2011: 182) contains no revolutions in Italy, Bohemia, Austria, Germany, while at the same time there are little-known ones like the Independence War in Moldova or the Revolution in Wallachia.
- 3.
About the waves of revolutions see also Chapter “Typology and principles of dynamics of revolutionary waves in world history” (Rozov, 2022), Chapter “Revolutionary waves of the Early Modern period. Types and phases” (Tsygankov, 2022) and Chapter “The phenomenon and theories of revolutions” (Goldstone et al., 2022c).
- 4.
As for example, the Ottoman Empire in the period of the Balkan Crisis of 1875–1878 (see above). On the other hand, we can regard events similar to the national-liberation revolutions in the Spanish colonies in Latin America 1808–1826 as a revolutionary wave (see below) because they did not make up a united territory with the metropole.
- 5.
About cultural-ideological, structural, and other reasons for emerging of revolutionary waves as well as the domino-effect see Chapter “Typology and principles of dynamics of revolutionary waves in world history” (Rozov, 2022) and Chapter “Revolutionary waves of the Early Modern period. Types and phases” (Tsygankov, 2022, in this volume).
- 6.
The waves were coded if two or more linked revolutionary situations occurred in two or more societies within a decade of each other (Beck, 2011: 195). But of course, two societies are obviously not enough for a wave. Concerning our criterion for the time gap, it is necessary to mention that we define the gap as the interval between the starting points of the first and the last revolutions of the same wave in different countries, even though the completion of these revolutions may take a long time.
- 7.
Modern researchers have come to the conclusion that there was “the paradox of early growth,” which meant that economic growth, expressed as an increase in GDP per capita, produced a marked increase in the wages of workers only after several decades (Pamuk & van Zanden, 2010: 219).
- 8.
‘This question of universal suffrage was a knife and fork question after all; this question was a bread and cheese question’ (Joseph Rayner Stephens 1838 cited in Ward, 1962: 192).
- 9.
As is well-known, it is Ireland that suffered the most from the potato blight, which struck in 1845 and 1846. The consequences were catastrophic for the country. However, no revolution occurred due to the dramatic depopulation. In 1847–1851 the population of the country reduced, according to some reports, from 8 to 5.5 million because of famine, diseases and migration (see, e.g. Armengaud, 1976; Hobsbawm, 1996a). Bad harvest in Europe led food prices to soar. (Trakhtenberg, 1963: 155). In Denmark, Prussia, Belgium, France, the Netherlands, and Wurttemberg, the 1845 potato yield fell by 20% to 80% from normal levels, while rye and wheat yields also fell by 10–40%.
- 10.
- 11.
From 1851 to 1871 in England their number increased from nine hundred thousand to one million and four hundred thousand (Mosse, 1974: 14), which showed the increase of the welfare of a significant number of Englishmen.
- 12.
In 1851 to 1871 their number in England was about one hundred and seventy thousand people (Mosse, 1974: 14).
- 13.
See Chapter “On revolutionary situations, stages of revolution, and some other aspects of the theory of revolution” (Grinin, 2022f), “Revolutions and historical process” (Grinin, 2022d), and “Evolution and typology of revolutions” (Grinin, 2022a, in this volume); see also Grinin, 2018a, 2018b, 2018c, 2019.
- 14.
About the organizations of revolutionaries in the nineteenth century see Chapter “Evolution and typology of revolutions” (Grinin, 2022a, in this volume).
- 15.
We named it Ibero-Latin wave of 1808–1826 [about it as well the wave of the French revolution see Chapter “On revolutionary waves since the sixteenth century” (Grinin, 2022b, in this volume and above)].
- 16.
It is worth mentioning that the loss of colonies and the Latin-American revolutions also had a great influence on the causes of the Spanish Revolution of 1820.
- 17.
Also there were several Cretan revolts in the nineteenth century (in 1841, 1858, 1866–1869, 1878, 1887–1898) until the Cretan state was established in 1898. During Ottoman rule the largest revolt in Crete took place in 1866–1869 and was called the Great Cretan Revolution [see also Chapter “Revolutionary waves and lines of the twentieth century” (Grinin & Grinin, 2022, in this volume)].
- 18.
These revolutions in Spain and Portugal gave new power to the wars for independence in Latin America and resulted in the formation of a number of new states.
- 19.
They also influenced Spain to some extent, and later contributed to the outbreak of the revolution of 1834–1843, which we spoke about, and to a lesser extent to the revolution of 1836 in Portugal (see above), which established a more democratic constitution.
- 20.
In this sense, a comparison suggests itself with the Arab Spring and the events of the year 1989 [Weyland, 2012; Grinin, 2012c; see also Chapter “Revolutionary waves and lines of the twentieth century” (Grinin & Grinin, 2022), Chapter “The Arab Spring: causes, conditions, and driving forces” (Grinin & Korotayev, 2022a), and Chapter “Egypt’s 2011 revolution. A demographic structural analysis” (Korotayev & Zinkina, 2022, in this volume)].
- 21.
National movements also took place among the peoples of the Hungarian part of the Austrian Empire: Croats, Romanians, and others. Moreover, revolutionary Hungary was at war with the Croats (led by Count Jelacic), since it prevented them from achieving independence.
- 22.
One should also note that representatives of national movements in different countries actively learned from each other, supported each other, and glorified foreign fighters for national liberation, etc. It was a kind of informal international.
- 23.
In 1870 taking advantage of the defeat of France in the war with Prussia, Victor Emmanuel's troops occupied the Papal States, in which the Pope's power was supported by French troops since they suppressed the revolution in the Papal Region and assisted with the defeat of the Republic in Rome in 1849. The latter was declared with the active participation of Garibaldi while Giuseppe Mazzini was one of its three leaders.
- 24.
Revolutions limited the increase of an absolute exploitation of workers. There were also social and political obstacles for increasing exploitation. It was prevented, first of all, by the fact that the bourgeoisie was not politically omnipotent like slave-owning aristocracy in the southern United States, or, more over, like top bureaucracy under the communist regime, to perpetuate this situation. Therefore, historically, the controversy was resolved by increasing productivity via mechanization and engineering in production, which was accompanied with the restriction of exploitation and raising the living standards of workers. There appeared more opportunities to restrict exploitation and legally enshrine certain rights for workers since labor became more mechanized and productive, and the amount of surplus product increased. The entrepreneurs started to realize ‘that more effective results could be achieved through saving the worker's efforts’ (Vialla, 1938: 423; see also: Schumpeter, 1995: 178).
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Grinin, L. (2022). The European Revolutions and Revolutionary Waves of the 19th Century: Their Causes and Consequences. In: Goldstone, J.A., Grinin, L., Korotayev, A. (eds) Handbook of Revolutions in the 21st Century. Societies and Political Orders in Transition. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86468-2_11
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